Failed States and the Spread of Terrorism in Sub-Saharan Africa

References

• Abedin , Mahan . 1998 . “ Asymmetric threats ” . In Strategic Assessment 1998 , Washington, DC : Institute for National Security Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Adamson , C. 1998 . Tribute, turf, honor, and the American street gang: Patterns of continuity and change since 1820 . Theoretical Criminology , 2 ( 1 ) : 57 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Addison , Michael . 2002 . “ Violent politics: Strategies of internal conflict ” . Basingstoke : Palgrave .
   Google Scholar
• Akers , R. L. 1998 . Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance , Boston, MA : Northwestern University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Akers , R. L. and Gang , L. 1999 . Age, social learning, and social bonding in adolescent substance use . Deviant Behavior , 19 : 1 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslan , Reza . 2006 . Hezbollah is nobody's puppet . Los Angeles Times. , 25 July
   Google Scholar
• Azam , Jean-Paul . 2001 . The redistributive state and conflicts in Africa . The Journal of Peace Research , 38 ( 4 ) : 429 – 444 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates , Robert . 1981 . Markets and states tropical Africa: The agricultural basis of agricultural policies , Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bates , Robert . 2007 . “ Political conflict and state failure ” . In The political economy of economic growth in Africa, 1960–2000 , Edited by: Ndulu , Benno , O’Connell , Stephen , Bates , Robert , Collier , Paul and Soludo , Charles . 249 – 296 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Becker , Bronwyn E. and Luthar , Suniya S. 2002 . Social-emotional factors affecting achievement outcomes among disadvantaged students: Closing the achievement gap . Educational Psychologist , 37 ( 4 ) : 197 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berliner , David C. 2005 . Our impoverished view of educational reform . Teachers College Record. , 2 August
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beirut Center for Research and Information . 2006 . Poll finds overwhelming majorities in Lebanon support Hezbollah, distrust U.S . World Public Opinion: Global Public Opinion International Affairs , 2 August. Available at http://www.worldpublicopinion.org
   Google Scholar
• Boone , Catherine . 2007 . Property and constitutional order: Land tenure reform and the future of the African state . African Affairs , : 1 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Brady , David . 2003 . Rethinking the sociological measurement of poverty . Social Forces , 81 ( 3 ) : 715 – 751 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler , David . 2009 . Statebuilding and intervention: Policies, practices and paradigms , London : Routledge . Routledge Studies in Intervention and Statebuilding
   Google Scholar
• Chesterman , Simon , Ignatieff , Michael and Thakur , Ramesh . 2005 . Making states work: State failure and the crisis of governance , Tokyo : The United Nations University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chomsky , Noam . 1988 . The culture of terrorism , Boston : South End Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cilluffo , Frank . 2001 . Combating chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear terrorism: A comprehensive strategy: A report of the CSIS Homeland Defense Project , Washington, DC : Center for Strategic and International Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Cooley , John . 2000 . Unholy wars: Afghanistan, America and international terrorism. , London : Pluto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Craig , Captain D. W. 1988 . Asymmetrical warfare and the transnational threat: Relearning the lessons from Vietnam , Ontario : Canadian Forces College .
   Google Scholar
• Danziger , Sheldon H. and Weinberg , Daniel H. 1994 . “ The historical record: Trends in family income, inequality, and poverty ” . In Confronting poverty: Prescriptions for change , Edited by: Danziger , Sheldon H. , Sandefur , Gary D. and Weinberg , Daniel H. 18 – 50 . New York : Russell Sage Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Debiel , Tobias and Klein , Axel . 2002 . Fragile peace: State failure, violence and development in crisis regions , London : Zed Books Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Elliot , D. D. and Menard , S. 1996 . “ Delinquent friends and delinquent behavior: Temporal and developmental patterns ” . In Delinquency and crime: Current theories , Edited by: Hawkins , D. 28 – 67 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Esty , Daniel C. , Goldstone , Jack A. , Gurr , Ted Robert , Harff , Barbara , Levy , Marc , Geoffrey , D. Dabelko , Surko , Pamela T. and Unger , Alan N. 1995 . State Failure Task Force Report: Phase I Findings , McLean, VA : Science Applications International Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Esty , Daniel C. , Goldstone , Jack A. , Gurr , Ted Robert , Harff , Barbara , Levy , Marc , Dabelko , Geoffrey D. , Surko , Pamela T. and Unger , Alan N. 1998 . State Failure Task Force report: Phase II findings , McLean, VA : Science Applications International Corporation . 31 July
   Google Scholar
• Flannery , Daniel J. and Huff , Ronald C. 1999 . Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy , Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press .
   Google Scholar
• Franks , Jason . 2006 . Rethinking the roots of terrorism , New York : Palgrave Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Freedman , Lawrence . 2002 . Superterrorism: Policy responses , Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Goldstone , Jack , Gurr , Ted Robert , Harff , Barbara , Levy , Marc A. , Marshall , Monty G. , Bates , Robert H. , Epstein , David L. , Kahl , Colin H. , Surko , Pamela T. , Ulfelder , John C. and Unger , Alan N. 2000 . “ consultation with Matthew Christenson ” . In State Failure Task Force report: Phase III findings , Edited by: Dabelko , Geoffrey D. , Esty , Daniel C. and Parris , Thomas M. McLean, VA : Science Applications International Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Gurr , Ted Robert . 1970 . Why men rebel , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Harbeson , John W. and Rothchild , Donald . 2008 . Africa in world politics: Reforming political order , 4th edition , Boulder, CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman , Bruce . 2006 . Inside terrorism , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Howard , Tiffiany . 2008 . Revisiting state failure: Developing a causal model of state failure based upon theoretical insight . Civil Wars , 10 ( 2 ) : 125 – 296 .
   Google Scholar
• Howard , Tiffiany . 2010 . The tragedy of failure: Evaluating state failure and its impact on the spread of refugees, terrorism, and war , Santa Barbara, CA : Praeger Security International-Greenwood Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Huntington , Samuel . 1968 . Political order in changing societies , Ithaca, NY : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Huntington , Samuel . 1991 . The third wave: Democratization in the late twentieth century , London : Oklahoma University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , Robert H. and Alan , James . 1993 . States in a changing world , Oxford : Carendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , R. H. and Rosberg , C. G. 1982 . Personal rule in black Africa , Berkeley, CA : University of Berkeley Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jamail , Dahr . 2006 . Hezbollah could be gaining strength . Inter Press News Service , 26 July
   Google Scholar
• Klein , Malcom and Maxson , Cheryl . 2006 . Street gang patterns and policies , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kreijen , Gerard . 2004 . State failure, sovereignty and effectiveness , Leiden, , The Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Levi , Margaret . 1988 . Of Rule and Revenue , Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Linden , Edward . 2002 . World terrorism , New York : Nova Science .
   Google Scholar
• Long , David . 1990 . The anatomy of terrorism , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , R. C. 1987 . “ Religious violence in Islam: Towards an understanding of the discourse on Jihad in modern Egypt ” . In Contemporary research on terrorism , Edited by: Wilkinson , P. and Stewarts , A. 55 – 72 . Aberdeen, , U.K. : Aberdeen University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Menkhaus , Ken . 2002 . Somalia: Next up in the War on Terrorism . CSIS Africa Notes , No. 6, January. Available at www.csis.org/component/option,com_csis_pubs/task,view/id,2139/type,3/ (accessed 12 February 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Miliken , Jennifer . 2003 . State failure, collapse and reconstruction , Hoboken, NJ : Blackwell Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Mohammed , Ibrahim . 2009 . Somali police warn of more suicide bombings . Reuters. , 7 December. Available at http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5B63DV20091207 (accessed 10 December 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Newman , Edward . 2007 . Weak states, state failure and terrroism . Terrorism and Political Violence , 19 ( 4 ) : 463 – 488 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orfield , G. and Lee , C. 2005 . Why segregation matters: Poverty and educational inequality , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University and The Civil Rights Project .
   Google Scholar
• Piazza , James A. 2006 . Rooted in poverty?: Terrorism, poor economic development and social cleavages . Terrorism and Political Violence , 18 : 159 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piazza , James A. 2007 . Draining the swamp: Democracy promotion, state failure, and terrorism in 19 Middle Eastern countries . Studies in Conflict and Terrorism , 30 : 521 – 539 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabasa , Angel , Boraz , Steven , Chalk , Peter , Cragin , Kim , Karasik , Theofore W. , Moroney , Jennifer D.P. , O’Brien , Kevin A. and Peters , John E. 2007 . Ungoverned territories: Understanding and reducing terrorism risks , Santa Monica, CA : RAND Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport , David . 1999 . “ Terrorism ” . In Encyclopedia of violence, peace, and conflict , Vol. 3 , 497 – 510 . San Diego : Academic Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Reno , William . 2003 . “Warfare in a Post-State Society.” . In State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror , Edited by: Rotberg , Robert . 71 – 100 . Washington, D.C. : Brookings Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rotberg , Robert . 2003 . State failure and state weakness in a time of terror , Cambridge, MA : World Peace Foundation; Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rotberg , Robert . 2004 . When states fail: Causes and consequences. , Cambridge, MA : World Peace Foundation; Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Seifert , Kathryn . 2006 . How children become violent: Keeping your kids out of gangs, terrorist organizations, and cults , Boston, MA : Acanthus Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Sen , Amartya . 1982 . Choice, Welfare, and Measurements , Oxford : Basil Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , Stephen C. 2005 . Ending global poverty: A guide to what works , New York : Palgrave Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Snowdon , Ben and Johnson , David . 2007 . “ Primer on the Embassy bombings and the U.S. strikes on Sudan and Afghanistan ” . Available at http://www.infoplease.com/spot/newsfacts-sudanstrikes.html (accessed 10 December 2009)
   Google Scholar
• Sorli , Miriam , Gleditsch , Nils Peter and Strand , Havard . 2005 . Why is there so much conflict in the Middle East? . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 49 ( 1 ) : 141 – 165 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilak , Jandhyala B. G. 2002 . Education and poverty . Journal of Human Development , 3 ( 2 ) : 191 – 207 .
   Google Scholar
• Tikusis , P. 2009 . On the relationship between weak states and terrorism . Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression , 1 ( 1 ) : 66 – 79 .
   Google Scholar
• Widner , Jennifer A. 1995 . States and statelessness in late twentieth-century Africa . Daedalus , 124 ( 3 ) : 129 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson , Paul . 2000 . “ The strategic implications of terrorism ” . In Terrorism and political violence: A sourcebook , Edited by: Sondhi , M. L. 19 – 49 . New Delhi, , India : Har-anand Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , Scott . 2006 . Hamas sweeps Palestinian elections, complicating peace efforts in Mideast . The Washington Post Foreign Service. , 27 January
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , Scott . 2009 . Palestinian support for Hamas has not declined . The Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs Report , No. 850. 27 January
   Google Scholar
• Zanini , Michele . 1999 . Middle Eastern terrorism and netwar . Studies in Conflict and Terrorism , 22 ( 3 ) : 247 – 256 .
   Google Scholar
• Zartman , I. W. 1995 . Collapsed states: The disintegration and restoration of legitimate authority , Boulder, CO : L. Rienner Publishers .
   Google Scholar