The Battle for the Soul of the Nation: Nationalist Polarization in the 2020 American Presidential Election and the Threat to Democracy

References

• Abramowitz, A. I. (2018). The great alignment: Race, party transformation, and the rise of Donald Trump. Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Abramowitz, A., & McCoy, J. (2019). United States: Racial resentment, negative partisanship, and polarization in Trump’s America. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 681(1), 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716218811309
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, A. (2022). Is the American public really turning away from democracy? Backsliding and the conceptual challenges of understanding public attitudes. Perspectives on Politics, 21(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592722001062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander, J. C., Giesen, B., & Mast, J. L. (Eds.). (2006). Social performance: Symbolic action, cultural pragmatics, and ritual. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Arieli, Y. (1964). Individualism and Nationalism in American Ideology. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, J. A. (1982). Nations before nationalism. University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Austermuehl, F. (2020). The normalization of exclusion through a revival of whiteness in Donald Trump’s 2016 election campaign discourse. Social Semiotics, 30(4), 528–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2020.1766205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreto, A. A., & Napolio, N. G. (2020). Bifurcating American identity: Partisanship, sexual orientation, and the 2016 presidential election. Politics, Groups & Identities, 8(1), 143–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1442727
   Google Scholar
• Benford, R. D., & Snow, D. A. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual Review of Sociology, 26(1), 611–639.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biden, J. R. (2020). Remarks by Vice President Joe Biden in Warm Springs, Georgia. Online. Retrieved January 5, 2023, from https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-vice-president-joe-biden-warm-springs-georgia
   Google Scholar
• Billig, M. (2005). Banal nationalism. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, B., & DiMaggio, P. (2016). Varieties of American popular nationalism. American Sociological Review, 81(5), 949–980. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, B., Feinstein, Y., & Bock, S. (2021). The partisan sorting of “America. American Journal of Sociology, 127(2), 492–561. https://doi.org/10.1086/717103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, B., Luo, Y., & Stuhler, O. (2022). Politics as usual? Measuring populism, nationalism, and authoritarianism in US presidential campaigns (1952–2020) with Neural Language models. Sociological Methods & Research, 51(4), 1721–1787. https://doi.org/10.1177/00491241221122317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Breton, R. (1988). From ethnic to civic nationalism: English Canada and Quebec. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 11(1), 85–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1988.9993590
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breuilly, J. (2009). Nationalism and the making of national pasts. In S. Carvalho & F. Gemenne (Eds.), Nations and their histories: constructions and representations. Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Broockman, D. E., Kalla, J. L., & Westwood, S. J. (2022). Does affective polarization undermine democratic norms or accountability? Maybe not. American Journal of Political Science, 67(3), 808–828. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brubaker, R. (1999). The manichean myth: Rethinking the distinction between ‘civic’ and ‘Ethnic’ nationalism. In H. Kriesi, K. Armingeon, H. Slegrist, & A. Wimmer (Eds.), Nation and national identity: The European experience in perspective (pp. 55–72). Ruegger.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, R. (2009). Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, A. (2021). White Evangelical racism: The politics of morality in America. University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Citrin, J., Reingold, B., & Green, D. P. (1990). American identity and the politics of ethnic change. The Journal of Politics, 52(4), 1124–1154. https://doi.org/10.2307/2131685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyerman, R. (2022). The making of White American identity. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Feinberg, A., Branton, R., & Martinez-Ebers, V. (2022). The trump effect: How 2016 campaign rallies explain spikes in hate. PS: Political Science & Politics, 55(2), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096521001621
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, K. (1996). The face of the nation: Immigration, the state, and the national identity. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gerstle, G. (2017). American crucible: Race and nation in the twentieth century. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, M. H., & Svolik, M. W. (2020). Democracy in America? Partisanship, polarization, and the robustness of support for democracy in the United States. American Political Science Review, 114(2), 392–409. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfeld, L. (1992). Nationalism: Five roads to modernity. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Habermas, J., & Press, P. (1989). The public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society.
   Google Scholar
• Haney-López, I. (2014). Dog whistle politics: How coded racial appeals have reinvented racism and wrecked the middle class. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hartz, L. (1955). The liberal tradition in America: An interpretation of American political thought since the revolution. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, C. J. H. (1960). Nationalism: A religion. Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Higham, J. (2002). Strangers in the land : Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925. Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hobsbawm, E., & Ranger, T. (1983). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hobsbawm, E. & Ranger, T. (1983). The invention of tradition. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hooghe, M., & Dassonneville, R. (2018). Explaining the Trump vote: The effect of racist resentment and anti-immigrant sentiments. PS: Political Science & Politics, 51(3), 528–534. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096518000367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horsman, R. (1986). Race and manifest destiny: The origins of American racial anglo-saxonism. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, J. (1986). Dynamics of cultural nationalism: The Gaelic revival and the creation of the Irish nation state. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, J. (2005). Nations as zones of conflict. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Ignatiev, N. (1995). How the Irish became white. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson, M. F. (1999). Whiteness of a different color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jardina, A. (2019). White identity politics. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, F. L., & Smith, P. (2001). Diversity and commonality in national identities: An exploratory analysis of cross-national patterns. Journal of Sociology, 37(1), 45–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/144078301128756193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufmann, E. (2004). The rise and Fall of Anglo-America. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• King, D. S., & Smith, R. M. (2005). Racial orders in American political development. American Political Science Review, 99(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055405051506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingzette, J., Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2021). How affective polarization undermines support for democratic norms. Public Opinion Quarterly, 85(2), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfab029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohn, H. (2017 [1944]). The idea of nationalism: A study of its origins and background. Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Lacy, S., Watson, B., Riffe, D., & Lovejoy, J. (2015). Issues and best practices in content analysis. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 92(4), 791–811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699015607338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepore, J. (2019). This America: The case for the nation. Hachette UK.
   Google Scholar
• Li, Q., & Brewer, M. B. (2004). What does it mean to be an American? Patriotism, nationalism, and American identity after 9/11. Political Psychology, 25(5), 727–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00395.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman, R. C., Mettler, S., Pepinsky, T. B., Roberts, K. M., & Valelly, R. (2019). The Trump presidency and American democracy: A historical and comparative analysis. Perspectives on Politics, 17(2), 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592718003286
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieven, A. (2012). America right or wrong: An anatomy of American nationalism. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lieven, A. (2016). Clinton and Trump: Two faces of American nationalism. Survival, 58(5), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2016.1231526
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipset, S. M. (1996). American exceptionalism: A double-edged sword. WW Norton and Company.
   Google Scholar
• MacPhail, C., Khoza, N., Abler, L., & Ranganathan, M. (2015). Process guidelines for establishing intercoder reliability in qualitative studies. Qualitative Research, 16(2), 198–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794115577012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malesevic, S. (2019). Grounded nationalisms: A sociological analysis. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mason, L. (2018). Uncivil agreement: How politics became our identity. University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• McTavish, D. G., & Pirro, E. B. (1990). Contextual content analysis. Quality and Quantity, 24(3), 245–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00139259
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercieca, J. (2020). Demagogue for president: The rhetorical genius of Donald Trump. Texas A&M University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mill, J. S. (1977 [1861]). Considerations on Representative Government. In J. M. Robson (Ed.), Collected Works of John Stuart Mill (Vol. 19). University of Toronto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mosse, G. L. (1975). The nationalization of the masses: Political symbolism and Mass movements from the napoleonic wars through the third reich. Howard Fertig Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Motyl, A. (2001). Inventing invention: The limits of national identity formation. In R. Suny & M. Kennedy (Eds.), Intellectuals and the articulation of the nation. University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Myrdal, G. (2017 [1944]). An American Dilemma: The negro problem and modern democracy. (Vol. 1). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Naganathan, G., Srikanthan, S., Balachandran, A., Gladdy, A., & Shanmuganathan, V. (2022). Collaborative zoom coding – a novel approach to qualitative analysis. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221075862
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit and authoritarian populism. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• NPR. 2008. Transcript: Barack Obama’s Speech on Race. Online. Retrieved January 10, 2023, from npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=88478467
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor, C., & Joffe, H. (2020). Intercoder reliability in qualitative research: Debates and practical guidelines. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919899220
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ott, B. L., & Dickinson, G. (2019). The twitter presidency: Donald J. Trump and the politics of white rage. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Painter, N. I. (2010). The history of white people. WW Norton and Co.
   Google Scholar
• Pehrson, S., & Green, E. G. (2010). Who we are and who can join us. Journal of Social Issues, 66(4), 695–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01671.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, S. L., & Whitehead, A. L. (2015). Christian nationalism and white racial boundaries: Examining whites’ opposition to interracial marriage. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(10), 1671–1689. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1015584
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeskens, T., & Hooghe, M. (2010). Beyond the civic–ethnic dichotomy. Nations and Nationalism, 16(4), 579–597. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00446.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Restad, H. E. (2020). What makes America great? Donald Trump, national identity, and US foreign policy. Global Affairs, 6(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2020.1734955
   Google Scholar
• Roediger, D. R. (1991). The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. Verso Books.
   Google Scholar
• Rowland, R. (2021). The rhetoric of Donald Trump: Nationalist populism in American democracy. University of Kansas Press.
   Google Scholar
• Saul, J. (2017). Racial figleaves, the shifting boundaries of the permissible, and the rise of Donald Trump. Philosophical Topics, 45(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.5840/philtopics201745215
   Google Scholar
• Schertzer, R., & Woods, E. T. (2021). # Nationalism: The ethno-nationalist populism of Donald Trump’s twitter communication. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(7), 1154–1173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1713390
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schertzer, R., & Woods, E. T. (2022). The new nationalism in America and beyond: The deep roots of ethnic nationalism in the digital age. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger, A. (1998). The disuniting of America: Reflections on a multicultural society. WW Norton and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Schöpflin, G. (1997). The Function of Myths and a Taxonomy of Myths. In G. Schöpflin & G. Hosking (Eds.), Myths and Nationhood. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sides, J., Tesler, M., & Vavreck, L. (2018). Identity crisis: The 2016 presidential campaign and the battle for the meaning of America. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Skocpol, T., & Williamson, V. (2016). The Tea Party and the remaking of republican conservatism. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D. (1986). The ethnic origins of nations. Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D. (1998). Nationalism and modernism. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D. (2003). Chosen peoples: Sacred sources of national identity. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D. (2010). Nationalism: Theory, ideology, history. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, R. (1997). Civic ideals: Conflicting visions of citizenship in U.S. History. Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A., & Benford, R. D. (1992). Master frames and cycles of protest. In A. D. Morris & C. M. Mueller (Eds.), Frontiers in social movement theory. Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stuckey, M. E. (2005). One nation (pretty darn) divisible: National identity in the 2004 conventions. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 8(4), 639–656. https://doi.org/10.1353/rap.2006.0017
   Google Scholar
• Trump, D. J. (2020). Remarks by President Trump at South Dakota’s 2020 mount rushmore fireworks celebration. Online Retrieved January 5, 2023, from https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov
   Google Scholar
• Valluvan, S. (2019). The clamour of nationalism: Race and nation in twenty-first-century Britain. Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Woods, E. T. (2016). Cultural Nationalism. In D. Inglis & A. Almila (Eds.), Sage Handbook of Cultural Sociology. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Woods, E. T., & Debs, M. (2013). Towards a cultural sociology of nations and nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 19(4), 607–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, M. (2011). Diversity and the imagined community: Immigrant diversity and conceptions of national identity. Political Psychology, 32(5), 837–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2011.00843.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yack, B. (1996). The myth of the civic nation. Politics and Society, 10(2), 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913819608443417
   Google Scholar
• Yack, B. (2001). Popular sovereignty and nationalism. Political Theory, 29(4), 517–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591701029004003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zubrzycki, G. (2002). The classical opposition between civic and ethnic models of nationhood: Ideology, Empirical reality and social scientific analysis. Polish Sociological Review, 3(139), 275–295.
   Google Scholar