19
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Cadmium and its compounds: Evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada

, , , , , & show all
Pages 195-217 | Published online: 19 Nov 2008

References

  • ADES , A.E. and KAZANTZIS , G. 1988 . Lung cancer in a non‐ferrous smelter: the role of cadmium . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 45 : 435 – 442 .
  • ANWAR , R.A. , LANGHAM , R.F. , HOPPERT , C.A. , ALFREDSON , B.V. and BYERRUM , R.U. 1961 . Chronic toxicity studies III. Chronic toxicity of cadmium and chromium to dogs . Arch. Environ. Health , 3 : 456 – 460 .
  • ARMSTRONG , B.G. and KAZANTZIS , G. 1983 . The mortality of cadmium workers . Lancet , i : 1425 – 1427 .
  • ARMSTRONG , B.G. and KAZANTZIS , G. 1985 . Prostatic cancer and chronic respiratory and renal disease in British cadmium workers: a case control study . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 42 : 540 – 545 .
  • ATSDR (AGENCY FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND DISEASE REGISTRY) . 1993 . Toxicological Profile for Cadmium , 171 U.S. Public Health Service . Update
  • BAKO , G. , SMITH , E.S.O. , HANSON , J. and DEWAR , R. 1982 . The geographical distribution of high cadmium concentrations in the environment and prostate cancer in Alberta . Can. J. Public Health , 73 : 92 – 94 .
  • BARANSKI , B. 1984 . Behavioral alterations in offspring of female rats repeatedly exposed to cadmium oxide by inhalation . Toxicol. Lett. , 22 : 53 – 61 .
  • BARANSKI , B. 1985 . Effect of exposure of pregnant rats to cadmium on prenatal and postnatal development of the young . J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. , 29 : 253 – 262 .
  • BARANSKI , B. 1986 . Effect of maternal cadmium exposure on postnatal development and tissue cadmium, copper and zinc concentrations in rats . Arch. Toxicol. , 58 : 255 – 260 .
  • BARANSKI , B. and SITAREK , K. 1987 . Effect of oral and inhalation exposure to cadmium on the oestrous cycle in rats . Toxicol. Lett. , 36 : 267 – 273 .
  • BARANSKI , B. , STETKIEWICZ , I. , TRZCINKA‐OCHOCKA , M. , SITAREK , K. and SZYMCZAK , W. 1982 . Teratogenicity, fetal toxicity and tissue concentration of cadmium administered to female rats during organogenesis . J. Appl. Toxicol. , 2 : 255 – 259 .
  • BARANSKI , B. , STETKIEWICZ , I. , SITAREK , K. and SZYMCZAK , W. 1983 . Effects of oral, subchronic cadmium administration on fertility, prenatal and postnatal progeny development in rats . Arch. Toxicol. , 54 : 297 – 302 .
  • BASSENDOWSKA‐KARSKA , E. and ZAWADZKA‐KOS , M. 1987 . Cadmium sulfate does not induce sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes in vitro . Toxicol. Lett. , 37 : 173 – 175 .
  • BAUCHINGER , M. , SCHMID , E. , EINBRODT , H.J. and DRESP , J. 1976 . Chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes after occupational exposure to lead and cadmium . Mutat. Res. , 40 : 57 – 62 .
  • BEWERS , J.M. , BARRY , P.J. and MACGREGOR , D.J. 1987 . “ Distribution and cycling of cadmium in the environment ” . In Cadmium in the Aquatic Environment , Edited by: Nriagu , J.O. and Sprague , J.B. 1 – 18 . New York‐Chichester‐Brisbane‐Toronto‐Singapore : Wiley‐lnterscience .
  • BEZAK , D. 1991a . Heavy Metals in Air ‐ Flin Ron, December 1988 ‐ March 1991 , Report No. 91–02 22 Manitoba Department of Environment, Air Quality Management Section . Air Quality Management Section
  • BEZAK, D. (1991b). Personal communication from David Bezak, Chief, Air Quality Section, Manitoba Environment, Building 2, 139 Tuxedo Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba. October 24, 1991 letter.
  • BLAKLEY , B.R. 1986 . The effect of cadmium on chemical‐ and viral‐ induced tumor production in mice . J. Appl. Toxicol. , 6 : 425 – 429 .
  • BUCHET , J.P. , LAUWERYS , R. , ROELS , H. , BERNARD , A. , BRUAUX , P. , CLAEYS , F. , DUCOFFRE , G. , DE PLAEN , P. , STAESSEN , J. , AMERY , A. , LIJNEN , P. , THIJS , L. , RONDIA , D. , SARTOR , F. , SAINT REMY , A. and NICK , L. 1990 . Renal effects of cadmium body burden of the general population . Lancet , 336 : 699 – 702 .
  • BUI , T.‐H. , LINDSTEN , J. and NORDBERG , G.F. 1975 . Chromosome analysis of lymphocytes from cadmium workers and itai‐itai patients . Environ. Res. , 9 : 187 – 195 .
  • CHIA , S.E. , ONG , C.N. , LEE , S.T. and TSAKOK , F.H.M. 1992 . Blood concentrations of lead, cadmium, mercury, zinc, and copper and human semen parameters . Arch. Androl. , 29 : 177 – 183 .
  • CHOUDHURY , H. , HASTINGS , L. , MENDEN , E. , BROCKMAN , D. , COOPER , G.P. , PETERING , H.G. and Kirchgessener , M. 1978 . “ Effects of low level prenatal cadmium exposure on trace metal body burden and behavior in Sprague‐Dawley rats ” . In Trace metal metabolism in man and animals , Volume 3 , 549 – 552 . Freising‐Weihenstephan : Technical University of Munich Press .
  • CHUNG , J. , NARTEY , N.O. and CHERIAN , M.G. 1986 . Metallothionein levels in liver and kidney of Canadians ‐a potential indicator of environmental exposure to cadmium . Arch. Environ. Health , 41 : 319 – 323 .
  • COOPER , G.P. , CHOUDHURY , H. , HASTINGS , L. and PETERING , H.G. 1978 . “ Prenatal cadmium exposure: effects on essential trace metals and behavior in rats ” . In Developmental toxicology of energy‐related pollutants. , Symposium Serial 47 Edited by: Sikov , M. and Mahlon , D. 627 – 637 . Washington : US Department of Energy .
  • COSTA , M. , HECK , J.D. and ROBISON , S.H. 1982 . Selective phagocytosis of crystalline metal sulfide particles and DNA strand breaks as a mechanism for the induction of cellular transformation . Cancer Res. , 42 : 2757 – 2763 .
  • DABEKA , R.W. 1989 . Survey of lead, cadmium, cobalt and nickel in infant formulas and evaporated milks and estimation of dietary intakes of the elements by infants 0–12 months old . Sci. Total Environ. , 89 : 279 – 289 .
  • DABEKA , R.W. and MCKENZIE , A.D. 1992 . Total diet study of lead and cadmium in food composites: preliminary investigations . J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. , 75 : 386 – 394 .
  • DEKNUDT , GH. and LÉONARD , A. 1975 . Cytogenetic investigations on leucocytes of workers from a cadmium plant . Envir. Physiol. Biochem. , 5 : 319 – 327 .
  • DEKNUDT , GH. , LÉONARD , A. and IVANOV , B. 1973 . Chromosome aberrations observed in male workers occupationally exposed to lead . Envir. Physiol. Biochem. , 3 : 132 – 138 .
  • EC (ENVIRONMENT CANADA) . 1991 . Measurement Program for Toxic Contaminants in Canadian Urban Air , Report No. PMD 91–2 Ottawa, Ontario : River Road Environmental Technology Centre, Pollution Measurement Division, Conservation and Protection . Unpublished Report, Update and summary report
  • EHD (ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH DIRECTORATE) . 20 November 1992 . Determination of “toxic”; under Paragraph 11c) of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. , First Edition , 20 November , Bureau of Chemical Hazards, Health and Welfare Canada . 1992
  • ELGHANY , N.A. , SCHUMACHER , M.C. , SLATTERY , M.L. , WEST , D.W. and LEE , J.S. 1990 . Occupation, cadmium exposure, and prostate cancer . Epidemiol. , 1 : 107 – 115 .
  • ELINDER , C.G. , KJELLSTRÖM , T. , HOGSTEDT , C. , ANDERSSON , K. and SPÄNG , G. 1985 . Cancer mortality of cadmium workers . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 42 : 651 – 655 .
  • ELLIS , K.J. , MORGAN , W.D. , ZANZI , I. , YASUMURA , S. , VARTSKY , D. and COHN , S.H. 1981 . Critical concentrations of cadmium in human renal cortex: dose‐effect studies in cadmium smelter workers . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 7 : 691 – 703 .
  • EWERS , U. , BROCKHAUS , A. , DOLGNER , R. , FREIER , I. , JERMANN , E. , BERNARD , A. , STILLER‐WINKLER , R. , HAHN , R. and MANOJLOVIC , N. 1985 . Environmental exposure to cadmium and renal function of elderly women living in cadmium‐polluted areas of the Federal Republic of Germany . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 55 : 217 – 239 .
  • EXON , J.H. and KOLLER , L.D. 1986 . “ Immunotoxicity of cadmium ” . In Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology , Edited by: Foulkes , E.C. Volume 80 , 339 – 350 . Berlin : Springer‐Verlag .
  • FALCK , F.Y. Jr. , FINE , L.J. , SMITH , R.G. , MCCLATCHEY , K.D. , ANNESLEY , T. , ENGLAND , B. and SCHORK , A.M. 1983 . Occupational cadmium exposure and renal status . Am. J. Ind. Med. , 4 : 541 – 549 .
  • FLEIG , I. , RIETH , H. , STOCKER , W.G. and THIESS , A.M. 1983 . Chromosome investigations of workers exposed to cadmium in the manufacturing of cadmium stabilizers and pigments . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 7 : 106 – 110 .
  • FRÉRY , N. , NESSMANN , C. , GIRARD , F. , LAFOND , J. , MOREAU , T. , BLOT , P. , LELLOUCH , J. and HUEL , G. 1993 . Environmental exposure to cadmium and human birthweight . Toxicology , 79 : 109 – 118 .
  • GLASER , U. , HOCHRAINER , D. , OTTO , F.J. and OLDIGES , H. 1990 . Carcinogenicity and toxicity of four cadmium compounds inhaled by rats . Toxicol. Environ. Chem. , 27 : 153 – 162 .
  • HAN , C. , WU , G. , YIN , Y. and SHEN , M. 1992 . Inhibition by germanium oxide of the mutagenicity of cadmium chloride in various genotoxicity assays . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 30 : 521 – 524 .
  • HEINRICH , U. , PETERS , L. , ERNST , H. , RITTINGHAUSEN , S. , DASENBROCK , C. and KÖNIG , H. 1989 . Investigation on the carcinogenic effects of various cadmium compounds after inhalation exposure in hamsters and mice . Exper. Pathol. , 37 : 253 – 258 .
  • HOLDEN , H. 1980 . “ Further mortality studies on workers exposed to cadmium fume ” . In Occupational Exposure to Cadmium, Report on seminar: London, 20 March 1980 23 – 24 .
  • IARC (INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER) . 1976 . Cadmium and cadmium compounds . IARC Monogr. , 11 : 39 – 74 .
  • INSKIP , H. , BERAL , V. and MCDOWALL , M. 1982 . Mortality of Shipham residents: 40‐year follow‐up . Lancet , i : 896 – 899 .
  • JÄRUP , L. , ELINDER , C.G. and SPÅNG , G. 1988 . Cumulative blood‐cadmium and tubular proteinuria: a dose‐response relationship . Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health , 60 : 223 – 229 .
  • JOHANSSON , A. , CURSTEDT , T. , ROBERTSON , B. and CAMNER , P. 1984 . Lung morphology and phospholipids after experimental inhalation of soluble cadmium, copper, and cobalt . Environ. Res. , 34 : 295 – 309 .
  • KAISERMAN, M. (1992). Personal communication from Murray Kaiserman, Tobacco Products Unit, Bureau of Chemical Hazards, Health and Welfare Canada, Ottawa.
  • KANEMATSU , N. , HARA , M. and KADA , T. 1980 . Rec assay and mutagenicity studies on metal compounds . Mutat. Res. , 77 : 109 – 116 .
  • KAZANTZIS , G. and HANBURY , W.J. 1966 . The induction of sarcoma in the rat by cadmium sulphide and by cadmium oxide . Brit. J. Cancer , 20 : 190 – 199 .
  • KAZANTZIS , G. , LAM , T.‐H. and SULLIVAN , K.R. 1988 . Mortality of cadmium‐exposed workers. A five‐year update . Scand. J. Work Environ. Health , 14 : 220 – 223 .
  • KIDO , T. , SHAIKH , Z.A. , KITO , H. , HONDA , R. and NOGAWA , K. 1991 . Dose‐response relationship between urinary cadmium and metallothionein in a Japanese population environmentally exposed to cadmium . Toxicology , 65 : 325 – 332 .
  • KIPLING , M.D. and WATERHOUSE , J.A.H. 1967 . Cadmium and prostatic carcinoma . Lancet , i : 730 – 731 .
  • KJELLSTRÖM , T. 1985a . “ Renal effects ” . In Cadmium and Health: A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal. Volume II. Effects and Response , Edited by: Friberg , L. 21 – 109 . Boca Raton : CRC Press .
  • KJELLSTRÖM , T. 1985b . “ Effects on bone, on vitamin D, and calcium metabolism ” . In Cadmium and Health: A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal. Volume II. Effects and Response. , Edited by: Friberg , L. 111 – 158 . Boca Raton : CRC Press .
  • KJELLSTRÖM , T. 1985c . “ Itai‐itai disease ” . In Cadmium and Health: A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal. Volume II. Effects and Response. , Edited by: Friberg , L. 257 – 290 . Boca Raton : CRC Press .
  • KJELLSTRÖM , T. , ELINDER , C.‐G. and FRIBERG , L. 1984 . Conceptual problems in establishing the critical concentration of cadmium in human kidney cortex . Environ. Res. , 33 : 284 – 295 .
  • KÖNIG , H.P. , HEINRICH , U. , KOCK , H. and PETERS , L. 1992 . Effect of photocorrosion on cadmium sulfide suspensions applied in animal inhalation studies with CdS particles . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 22 : 30 – 35 .
  • KOTSONIS , F.N. and KLAASSEN , C.D. 1978 . The relationship of metallothionein to the toxicity of cadmium after prolonged oral administration to rats . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 46 : 39 – 54 .
  • KREIS , I.A. 1992 . Health Effects of Cadmium Contamination in Kempenland , Den Haag : CIP‐Gegevens Koninklijke Bibliotheek .
  • KUROKAWA , Y. , TAKAHASHI , M. , MAEKAWA , A. and HAYASHI , Y. 1989 . Promoting effect of metal compounds on liver, stomach, kidney, pancreas, and skin carcinogenesis . J. Am. College Toxicol. , 8 : 1235 – 1239 .
  • KUTZMAN , R.S. , DREW , R.T. , SHIOTSUKA , R.N. and COCKRELL , B.Y. 1986 . Pulmonary changes resulting from subchronic exposure to cadmium chloride aerosol . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 17 : 175 – 189 .
  • LACHMANIUK, P. (1993). Personal communication from Patricia Lachmaniuk, Drinking Water Assessment Specialist, Drinking Water Surveillance Program, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, Ontario.
  • LAUWERYS , R. and DE WALS , PH. 1981 . Environmental pollution by cadmium and mortality from renal diseases . Lancet , i : 383
  • LAUWERYS , R. , AMERY , A. , BERNARD , A. , BRUAUX , P. , BUCHET , J.P. , CLAEYS , F. , DE PLAEN , P. , DUCOFFRE , G. , FAGARD , R. , LIJNEN , P. , NICK , L. , ROELS , H. , RONDIA , D. , SAINT‐REMY , A. , SARTOR , F. and STAESSEN , J. 1990 . Health effects of environmental exposure to cadmium: objectives, design and organization of the Cadmibel Study: a cross‐sectional morbidity study carried out in Belgium from 1985 to 1989 . Environ. Health Perspect. , 87 : 283 – 289 .
  • LEBARON , G.J. , CHERRY , W.H. and FORBES , W.F. 1977 . Studies of trace‐metal levels in human tissues. IV. The investigation of cadmium levels in kidney samples from 61 Canadian residents . Trace Subst. Environ. Health , XI : 44 – 54 .
  • LEMEN , R.A. , LEE , J.S. , WAGONER , J.K. and BLEJER , H.P. 1976 . Cancer mortality among cadmium production workers . Ann. NY Acad. Sci. , 271 : 273 – 279 .
  • LEVY , L.S. and CLACK , J. 1975 . Further studies on the effect of cadmium on the prostate gland ‐I. Absence of prostatic changes in rats given oral cadmium sulphate for two years . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 17 : 205 – 211 .
  • LEVY , L.S. , CLACK , J. and ROE , F.J.C. 1975 . Further studies on the effect of cadmium on the prostate gland ‐ II. Absence of prostatic changes in mice given oral cadmium sulphate for eighteen months . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 17 : 213 – 220 .
  • LÖSER , E. 1980 . A 2 year oral carcinogenicity study with cadmium on rats . Cancer Lett. , 9 : 191 – 198 .
  • MACHEMER , L. and LORKE , D. 1981 . Embryotoxic effect of cadmium on rats upon oral administration . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 58 : 438 – 443 .
  • MASON , H.J. , DAVISON , A.G. , WRIGHT , A.L. , GUTHRIE , C.J.G. , FAYERS , P.M. , VENABLES , K.M. , SMITH , N.J. , CHETTLE , D.R. , FRANKLIN , D.M. , SCOTT , M.C. , HOLDEN , H. , GOMPERTZ , D. and NEWMAN‐TAYLOR , A.J. 1988 . Relation between liver cadmium, cumulative exposure, and renal function in cadmium alloy workers . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 45 : 793 – 802 .
  • MAST , T.J. , LEACH , C.L. , MILLER , R.A. , MELLICK , P.W. , RAGAN , H.A. and CHOU , B.J. 1991 . Inhalation subchronic toxicity of cadmium oxide (CdO) in rodents . Toxicologist , 11 : 84 (abstract 250)
  • MEEK , M.E. , NEWHOOK , R. , LITEPLO , R.E. and ARMSTRONG , V.C. 1994 . Approach to assessment of risk to human health for Priority Substances under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act . J. Environ. Sci Health , C12 (2) : 105 – 134 .
  • MÉRANGER , J.C. , CONACHER , H.B.S. , CUNNINGHAM , H.M. and KREWSKI , D. 1981a . Levels of cadmium in human kidney cortex in Canada . Can. J. Public Health , 72 : 269 – 272 .
  • MERANGER , J.C. , SUBRAMANIAN , K.S. and CHALIFOUX , C. 1981b . Survey for cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, calcium, and magnesium in Canadian drinking water supplies . J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. , 64 : 44 – 53 .
  • MORTELMANS , K. , HAWORTH , S. , LAWLOR , T. , SPECK , W. , TAINER , B. and ZEIGER , E. 1986 . Salmonella mutagenicity tests. II. Results from the testing of 270 chemicals . Environ. Mutagen. , 8 (Suppl. 7) : 1 – 119 .
  • MUKHERJEE , A. , SHARMA , A. and TALUKDER , G. 1988 . Effect of selenium on cadmium‐induced chromosomal aberrations in bone marrow cells of mice . Toxicol. Lett. , 41 : 23 – 29 .
  • NAKAGAWA , H. , KAWANO , S. , OKUMURA , Y. , FUJITA , T. and NISHI , M. 1987 . Mortality study of inhabitants in a cadmium‐polluted area . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 38 : 553 – 560 .
  • NOGAWA , K. , HONDA , R. , KIDO , T. , TSURITANI , I. , YAMADA , Y. , ISHIZAKI , M. and YAMAYA , H. 1989 . A dose‐response analysis of cadmium in the general environment with special reference to total cadmium intake limit . Environ. Res. , 48 : 7 – 16 .
  • NOMIYAMA , K. , NOMIYAMA , H. , NOMURA , Y. , TAGUCHI , T. , MATSUI , K. , YOTORIYAMA , M. , AKAHORI , F. , IWAO , S. , KOIZUMI , N. , MASAOKA , T. , KITAMURA , S. , TSUCHIYA , K. , SUZUKI , T. and KOBAYASHI , K. 1979 . Effects of dietary cadmium on Rhesus monkeys . Environ. Health Perspect. , 28 : 223 – 243 .
  • OBERLY , T.J. , PIPER , C.E. and MCDONALD , D.S. 1982 . Mutagenicity of metal salts in the L5178Y mouse lymphoma assay . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 9 : 367 – 376 .
  • O'RIORDAN , M.L. , HUGHES , E.G. and EVANS , H.J. 1978 . Chromosome studies on blood lymphocytes of men occupationally exposed to cadmium . Mutat. Res. , 58 : 305 – 311 .
  • PETERING , H.G. , CHOUDHURY , H. and STEMMER , K.L. 1979 . Some effects of oral ingestion of cadmium on zinc, copper, and iron metabolism . Environ. Health Perspect. , 28 : 97 – 106 .
  • PIP , E. 1991 . Cadmium, copper, and lead in soils and garden produce near a metal smelter at Flin Flon, Manitoba . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 46 : 790 – 796 .
  • POIRIER , L.A. , KASPRZAK , K.S. , HOOVER , K.L. and WENK , M.L. 1983 . Effects of calcium and magnesium acetates on the carcinogenicity of cadmium chloride in Wistar Rats . Cancer Res. , 43 : 4575 – 4581 .
  • POMERANTSEVA , M.D. , RAMAIYA , L.K. and VILKINA , G.A. 1980 . Comparative efficacy of different tests for determining the mutagenicity of certain factors in mammals. II. Frequency of abnormal sperm heads in mice exposed to various factors . Soviet Genetics , 16 : 892 – 895 .
  • POTT , F. , ZIEM , U. , REIFFER , F.‐J. , HUTH , F. , ERNST , H. and MOHR , U. 1987 . Carcinogenicity studies on fibres, metal compounds, and some other dusts in rats . Exper. Pathol. , 32 : 129 – 152 .
  • PRIGGE , E. 1978a . Inhalative cadmium effects in pregnant and fetal rats . Toxicology , 10 : 297 – 309 .
  • PRIGGE , E. 1978b . Early signs of oral and inhalative cadmium uptake in rats . Arch. Toxicol. , 40 : 231 – 247 .
  • REDDY , J. , SVOBODA , D. , AZARNOFF , D. and DAWAR , R. 1973 . Cadmium‐induced Leydig cell tumours of rat testis: morphologic and cytochemical study . J. Nat. Cancer Inst. , 51 : 891 – 903 .
  • RICKERT , W.S. and KAISERMAN , M.J. 1993 . Level of lead, cadmium and mercury in Canadian cigarette tobacco as indicators of environmental change: results from a 21‐year study (1968–1988) , Tobacco Products Unit, Environmental Health Directorate, Health and Welfare Canada . Unpublished manuscript courtesy of Murray Kaiserman
  • ROBISON , S.H. , CANTONI , O. and COSTA , M. 1982 . Strand breakage and decreased molecular weight of DNA induced by specific metal compounds . Carcinogenesis , 3 : 657 – 662 .
  • ROE , F.J.C. , DUKES , C.E. , CAMERON , K.M. , PUGH , R.C.B. and MITCHLEY , B.C.V. 1964 . Cadmium neoplasia: testicular atrophy and Leydig cell hyperplasia and neoplasia in rats and mice following the subcutaneous injection of cadmium salts . Brit. J. Cancer , 18 : 674 – 681 .
  • ROELS , H.A. , LAUWERYS , R.R. , BUCHET , J.‐P. , BERNARD , A. , CHETTLE , D.R. , HARVEY , T.C. and AL‐HADDAD , I.K. 1981a . In vivo measurement of liver and kidney cadmium in workers exposed to this metal: its significance with respect to cadmium in blood and urine . Environ. Res. , 26 : 217 – 240 .
  • ROELS , H.A. , LAUWERYS , R.R. , BUCHET , J.‐P. and BERNARD , A. 1981b . Environmental exposure to cadmium and renal function of aged women in three areas of Belgium . Environ. Res. , 24 : 117 – 130 .
  • ROELS , H. , BERNARD , A.M. , CÁRDENAS , A. , BUCHET , J.P. , LAUWERYS , R.R. , HOTTER , G. , RAMIS , I. , MUTTI , A. , FRANCHINI , I. , BUNDSCHUH , I. , STOLTE , H. , DE BROE , M.E. , NUYTS , G.D. , TAYLOR , S.A. and PRICE , R.G. 1993 . Markers of early renal changes induced by industrial pollutants. III Application to workers exposed to cadmium . Br. J. Ind. Med. , 50 : 37 – 48 .
  • RÖHR , G. and BAUCHINGER , M. 1976 . Chromosome analyses in cell cultures of the Chinese hamster after application of cadmium sulphate . Mutat. Res. , 40 : 125 – 130 .
  • SAARANEN , M. , KANTOLA , M. , SAARIKOSKI , S. and VANHA‐PERTTULA , T. 1989 . Human seminal plasma cadmium: comparison with fertility and smoking habits . Andrologia , 21 : 140 – 145 .
  • SACCO‐GIBSON , N. , CHAUDHRY , S. , BROCK , A. , SICKLES , A.B. , PATEL , B. , HEGSTAD , R. , JOHNSTON , S. , PETERSON , D. and BHATTACHARYYA , M. 1992 . Cadmium effects on bone metabolism: accelerated resorption in ovarectomized, aged beagles . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 113 : 274 – 283 .
  • SARTOR , F.A. , RONDIA , D.J. , CLAEYS , F.C. , STAESSEN , J.A. , LAUWERYS , R.R. , BERNARD , A.M. , BUCHET , J.P. , ROELS , H.A. , BRUAUX , P.J. , DUCOFFRE , G.M. , LIJNEN , P.J. , THUS , L.B. and AMERY , A.K. 1992 . Impact of environmental cadmium pollution on cadmium exposure and body burden . Arch. Environ. Health , 47 : 347 – 353 .
  • SCHIESTL , R.H. 1989 . Non‐mutagenic carcinogens induce intrachromosomal recombination in yeast . Nature , 337 : 285 – 288 .
  • SCHROEDER , H.A. and VINTON , W.H. Jr. 1962 . Hypertension induced in rats by small doses of cadmium . Am. J. Physiol. , 202 : 515 – 518 .
  • SHIGEMATSU , I. , KITAMURA , S. , TAKEUCHI , J. , MINOWA , M. , NAGAI , M. , USUI , T. and FUKUSHIMA , M. A retrospective mortality study on cadmium‐exposed populations in Japan . Proceedings of the 3rd International Cadmium Conference . February 3–5 1981 , Miami, Florida. pp. 115 – 118 .
  • SHIMADA , T. , WATANABE , T. and ENDO , A. 1976 . Potential mutagenicity of cadmium in mammalian oocytes . Mutat. Res. , 40 : 389 – 396 .
  • SHIRAISHI , Y. 1975 . Cytogenetic studies in 12 patients with Itai‐ltai disease . Humangenetik , 27 : 31 – 44 .
  • SHIRAISHI , Y. and YOSIDA , T.H. 1972 . Chromosomal abnormalities in cultured leucocyte cells from Itai Itai disease patients . Proc. Jap. Acad. , 48 : 248 – 251 .
  • SHIRAISHI , Y. , KURAHASHI , H. and YOSIDA , T.H. 1972 . Chromosomal aberrations in cultured human leucocytes induced by cadmium sulfide . Proc. Jap. Acad. , 48 : 133 – 137 .
  • SINA , J.F. , BEAN , C.L. , DYSART , G.R. , TAYLOR , V.I. and BRADLEY , M.O. 1983 . Evaluation of the alkaline elution/rat hepatocyte assay as a predictor of carcinogenic/mutagenic potential . Mutat. Res. , 113 : 357 – 391 .
  • SORAHAN , T. 1987 . Mortality from lung cancer among a cohort of nickel cadmium battery workers: 1946–84 . Br. J. Ind. Med. AA , : 803 – 809 .
  • SORAHAN , T. and WATERHOUSE , J.A.H. 1983 . Mortality study of nickel‐cadmium battery workers by the method of regression models in life tables . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 40 : 293 – 300 .
  • SPORN , A. , DINU , I. and STOENESCU , L. 1970 . Influence of cadmium administration on carbohydrate and cellular energetic metabolism in the rat liver . Revue Roumaine de Biochemie , 7 : 299 – 305 .
  • STAESSEN , J. , AMERY , A. , BERNARD , A. , BRUAUX , P. , BUCHET , J.‐P. , CLAEYS , F. , DE PLAEN , P. , DUCOFFRE , G. , FAGARD , R. , LAUWERYS , R.R. , LIJNEN , P. , NICK , L. , REMY , A.S. , ROELS , H. , RONDIA , D. , SARTOR , F. and THIJS , L. 1991 . Effects of exposure to cadmium on calcium metabolism: a population study . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 48 : 710 – 714 .
  • STAYNER , L. , SMITH , R. , THUN , M. , SCHNORR , T. and LEMEN , R. 1992 . A dose‐response analysis and quantitative assessment of lung cancer risk and occupational cadmium exposure . Ann. Epidemiol. , 2 : 177 – 194 .
  • STAYNER , L. , SMITH , R. , SCHNORR , T. , LEMEN , R. and THUN , M. 1993 . Ann. Epidemiol. , 3 : 114 – 116 . [Letter to the editor]
  • SUTOU , S. , YAMAMOTO , K. , SENDOTA , H. and SUGIYAMA , M. 1980 . Toxicity, fertility, teratogenicity, and dominant lethal tests in rats administered cadmium subchronically. II. Fertility, teratogenicity, and dominant lethal tests . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 4 : 51 – 56 .
  • TAKASHIMA , M. , MORIWAKI , S. and ITOKAWA , Y. 1980 . Osteomalacic change induced by long‐term administration of cadmium to rats . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 54 : 223 – 228 .
  • TAKENAKA , S. , OLDIGES , H. , KÖNIG , H. , HOCHRAINER , D. and OBERDÖRSTER , G. 1983 . Carcinogenicity of cadmium chloride aerosols in W rats . J. Nat. Cancer Inst. , 70 : 367 – 373 .
  • TANG , X.‐M. , CHEN , X.‐Q. , ZANG , J.‐X. and QJN , W.‐Q. 1990 . Cytogenetic investigation in lymphocytes of people living in cadmium‐polluted areas . Mutat. Res. , 241 : 243 – 249 .
  • THUN , M.J. , SCHNORR , T.M. , SMITH , A.B. , HALPERIN , W.E. and LEMEN , R.A. 1985 . Mortality among a cohort of U.S. cadmium production workers ‐ an update . J. Nat. Cancer Inst. , 74 : 325 – 333 .
  • THUN , M.J. , OSORIO , A.M. , SCHOBER , S. , HANNON , W.H. , LEWIS , B. and HALPERIN , W. 1989 . Nephropathy in cadmium workers: assessment of risk from airborne occupational exposure to cadmium . Brit. J. Ind. Med. , 46 : 689 – 697 .
  • U.S. EPA (U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY) . 1985 . Updated Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity Assessment of Cadmium , Washington, D.C. : Office of Health and Environmental Assessment . EPA/600/8–83–025F
  • VALOIS , A.A. and WEBSTER , W.S. 1989 . The choroid plexus as a target site for cadmium toxicity following chronic exposure in the adult mouse: an ultrastructural study . Toxicology , 55 : 193 – 205 .
  • WAALKES , M.P. and REHM , S. 1992 . Carcinogenicity of oral cadmium in the male Wistar (WF/NCr) rat: effect of chronic dietary zinc deficiency . Fund. Appl. Toxicol. , 19 : 512 – 520 .
  • WAALKES , M.P. , REHM , S. , RIGGS , C.W. , BARE , R.M. , DEVOR , D.E. , POIRIER , L.A. , WENK , M.L. , HENNEMAN , J.R. and BALASCHAK , M.S. 1988 . Cadmium carcinogenesis in male Wistar [Crl: (WI)BR] rats: dose‐response analysis of tumor induction in the prostate and testes and at the injection site . Cancer Res. , 48 : 4656 – 4663 .
  • WAALKES , M.P. , REHM , S. , RIGGS , C.W. , BARE , R.M. , DEVOR , D.E. , POIRIER , L.A. , WENK , M.L. and HENNEMAN , J.R. 1989 . Cadmium carcinogenesis in male Wistar [CrI: (WI)BR] rats: dose‐response analysis of effects of zinc on tumour induction in the prostate, in the testes, and at the injection site . Cancer Res. , 49 : 4282 – 4288 .
  • WAALKES , M.P. , KOVATCH , R. and REHM , S. 1991a . Effect of chronic dietary zinc deficiency on cadmium toxicity and carcinogenesis in the male Wistar [Hsd.(WI)BR] rat . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 108 : 448 – 456 .
  • WAALKES , M.P. , DIWAN , B.A. , WEGHORST , C.M. , BARE , R.M. , WARD , J.M. and RICE , J.M. 1991b . Anticarcinogenic effects of cadmium in B6C3F1 mouse liver and lung . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 110 : 327 – 335 .
  • WATANABE , T. and ENDO , A. 1982 . Chromosome analysis of preimplantation embryos after cadmium treatment of oocytes at meiosis I . Environ. Mutagen. , 4 : 563 – 567 .
  • WATANABE , M. , SHIROISHI , K. , NISHINO , H. , SHINMURA , T. , MURASE , H. , SHOJI , T. , NARUSE , Y. and KAGAMIMORI , S. 1986 . An experimental study on the long‐term effect of cadmium in mice fed cadmium‐polluted rice with special reference to the effect of repeated reproductive cycles . Environ. Res. , 40 : 25 – 46 .
  • WATANABE , T. , SHIMADA , T. and ENDO , A. 1979 . Mutagenic effects of cadmium on mammalian oocyte chromosomes . Mutat. Res. , 67 : 349 – 356 .
  • WHELTON , B.D. , BHATTACHARYYA , M.H. , CARNES , B.A. , MORETTI , E.S. and PETERSON , D.P. 1988 . Female reproduction and pup survival and growth for mice fed a cadmium‐containing purified diet through six consecutive rounds of gestation and lactation . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 24 : 321 – 343 .
  • WHO (WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION) . 1992 . Environmental Health Criteria No. 134. Cadmium. , Geneva, , Switzerland : Internation Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization .
  • WILLS , J.H. , GROBLEWSKI , G.E. and COULSTON , F. 1981 . Chronic and multigeneration toxicities of small concentrations of cadmium in the diet of rats . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 5 : 452 – 464 .
  • YAMAGATA , N. and SHIGEMATSU , I. 1970 . Cadmium pollution in perspective . Bull. Inst. Public Health , 19 : 1 – 27 .
  • ZENICK , H. , HASTINGS , L. , GOLDSMITH , M. and NIEWENHUIS , R.J. 1982 . Chronic cadmium exposure: relation to male reproductive toxicity and subsequent fetal outcome . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 9 : 377 – 387 .
  • Author to whom correspondence or requests for the complete Assessment report and (unpublished) Supporting Documentation should be addressed.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.