The use of immunostimulatory substances in fish and shellfish farming

References

• Abel , G. and Czop , J. K. 1992 . Stimulation of human monocyte beta‐glucan receptors by glucan particles induces production of TNF a and Il‐1‐b . Int. J. Immunopharmacol. , 14 : 1363 – 1373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams , A. 1991 . Response of penaeid shrimp to exposure to Vibrio species . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 1 : 59 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Ainsworth , A. J. , Mao , C. P. and Boyle , C. R. 1994 . “ Immune response enhancement in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, using ß‐glucan from Schizophyllum commune ” . In Modulators of Fish Immune Responses, Models for Environmental Toxicology/Biomarkers, Immunostimulators , Edited by: Stolen , J. S. and Fletcher , T. C. Vol. 1 , 67 – 81 . Fair Haven , NJ : SOS Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Aketagawa , J. , Tanaka , S. , Tamura , H. , Shibata , Y. and Saitô , H. 1993 . Activation of limulus coagulation factor G by several (1–3)‐β‐D‐glucans: comparision of the potency of glucans with identical degree of polymerization but different conformation . J. Biochem. , 113 : 683 – 686 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , J. B. and Ingram , G. A. 1992 . Noncellular nonspecific defense mechanisms of fish . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , 2 : 249 – 279 .
   Google Scholar
• Almdahl , S. M. , Bøgwald , J. , Hoffman , J. and Seljelid , R. 1987 . Treatment of experimental peritonitis in rats by transfer of peritoneal mononuclear cells from rats injected with semisoluble aminated glucan . Acta Chir. Scand. , 153 : 535 – 539 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson , D. P. , Siwicki , A. K. , Dixon , O. W. and Lizzio , E. F. 1989 . “ Immunostimulation by levamisole in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in vivo ” . In Viruses of Lower Vertebrates , Edited by: Ahne , W. and Kurstak , E. 469 – 478 . New York : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , D. P. 1992 . Immunostimulants, adjuvants, and vaccine carriers in fish: applications to aquaculture . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , 2 : 281 – 307 .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , R. , Glover , A. , Koornhof , H. J. and Rabsonj , A. R. 1976 . In vitro stimulation of neutrophil motility by levamisole: maintenance of cGMP levels in chemotactically stimulated levemisole‐treated neutrophils . J. Immunol. , 177 (2) : 428 – 432 .
   Google Scholar
• Avtalion , R. R. 1981 . Environmental control of the immune response in fish . Crit. Rev. Environ. Control , 11 : 163 – 187 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azuma , I. 1987 . “ Development of immunostimulants in Japan ” . In Immunostimulants: Now and Tomorrow , Edited by: Azuma , I. and Joliès , G. 41 – 56 . Tokyo : Japan Science Society Press . /Springer‐Verlag, Berlin
   Google Scholar
• Azuma , I. and Joliès , G. 1987 . Immunostimulants: Now and Tomorrow , Tokyo : Japan Science Society Press . /Springer‐Verlag, Berlin
   Google Scholar
• Ballou , C. E. 1982 . “ Yeast cell wall and cell surface ” . In Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccha‐romyces: Metabolism and Gene Expression , Edited by: Strathern , J. N. , Jones , E. W. and Broach , J. R. 335 – 360 . New York : Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories .
   Google Scholar
• Barracco , M. A. , Duvic , B. and Søderhäll , K. 1991 . The β‐1,3‐glucan‐binding protein from the crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus when reacted with a β‐1,3‐glucan, induces spreading and degranulation of crayfish granular cells . Cell Tissue Res. , 266 : 491 – 497 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benacerraf , B. and Sebestyen , M. M. 1957 . Effect of bacterial endotoxins on the reticuloendo‐thelial system . Fed. Proc. , 16 : 860 – 867 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blazer , V. S. and Wolke , R. E. 1984a . Effect of diet on the immune response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) . Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. , 41 : 1244 – 1247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazer , V. S. and Wolke , R. E. 1984b . The effects of α‐tocopherol on the immune response and non‐specific resistance factors of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) . Aquaculture , 37 : 1 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazer , V. S. 1992 . Nutrition and disease resistance in fish . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , 2 : 309 – 323 .
   Google Scholar
• Blix , P. , Eggset , G. , G. , Leifson , R. McQ. and Ryeng , C. 1993 . “Vaksinasjon av lakseparr— effekt på vekst” . Norsk Fiskeoppdrett , 1 : 22 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Bliznakov , E. G. and Adler , A. D. 1972 . Nonlinear response of the reticuloendothelial system upon stimulation . Pathol. Microbiol. , 38 : 393 – 410 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bluhm , T. L. , Deslandes , Y. and Marchessault , R. H. 1982 . Solid‐state conformation of scleroglucan . Carbohyd. Res. , 100 : 117 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bly , J. E. , Grimm , A. S. and Morris , I. G. 1986 . Transfer of passive immunity from mother to young in a teleost fish: haemagglutinating activity in the serum and eggs of plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. , 84A : 309 – 313 .
   Google Scholar
• Bly , J. E. and Clem , L. W. 1992 . Temperature and teleost immune functions . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 2 : 159 – 171 .
   Google Scholar
• Bone , R. C. 1991 . The pathogenesis of sepsis . Ann. of Intern. Med. , 115 : 457 – 469 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulay , F. , Tardif , M. , Drouchon , L. and Vignais , P. 1990 . Synthesis and use of a novel N‐formyl peptide derivative to isolate a human N‐formyl peptide receptor cDNA . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 168 : 1103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brattgjerd , S. , Evensen , Ø. and Lauve , A. 1994 . Effect of injected yeast glucan on the activity of macrophages in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., as evaluated by in vitro hydrogen peroxide production and phagocytic capacity . Immunology , 83 : 288 – 294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun , R. , Arnesen , J. A. , Rinne , A. and Hjelmeland , K. 1990 . Immunohistological localization of trypsin in mucus‐secreting cell layers of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar . J. Fish Dis. , 13 : 233 – 238 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buddle , B. M. , Pulford , H. D. and Ralston , M. 1988 . Protective effect of glucan against experimentally induced staphylococcus mastitis in ewes . Vet. Microbiol. , 16 : 67 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulet , P. , Cociancich , S. , Dimarcq , J. L. , Lampert , J. , Reichert , J. M. , Hoffmann , D. , Hetro , C. and Hoffmann , J. A. 1991 . Insect immunity. Isolation of a coleopteran insect of a novel inducible antibacterial peptide and of new members of the insect defensin family . J. Biol. Chem. , 266 (36) : 24520 – 24525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgaleta , C. , Territo , M. C. , Quan , S. G. and Golde , D. W. 1978 . Glucan‐activated macrophages: functional characteristics and surface morphology . J. Reticuloendothelial Soc. , 23 (3) : 195 – 204 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burrell , R. 1990 . Immunomodulation by bacterial endotoxin . Crit. Rev. Microbiol. , 17 : 189 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bøgwald , J. , Johnson , E. and Seljelid , R. 1982 . The cytotoxic effect of mouse macrophages stimulated in vitro by a β‐1,3‐D‐glucan from yeast cell walls . Scand. J. Immunol. , 15 : 297 – 304 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bøgwald , J. , Gouda , I. , Hoffman , J. , Larsson , R. and Seljelid , R. 1984a . Stimulatory effect of immobilized glycans on macrophages in vitro . Scand. J. Immunol. , 20 : 355 – 360 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bøgwald , J. , Johnson , E. , Hoffman , J. and Seljelid , R. 1984b . Lysosomal glycosidases in mouse peritoneal macrophages stimulated in vitro with soluble and insoluble glycans . J. Leukocyte Biol. , 35 : 357 – 371 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bøgwald , J. , Stensvåg , K. , Stuge , T. B. and Jørgensen , T. Ø. 1994 . Tissue localisation and immune responses in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., after oral administration of Aeromonas salmonicida, Vibrio anguillarum Vibrio salmonicida antigens . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 4 : 353 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bøgwald , J. , Dalmo , R. A. , Leifson , R. M. , Stenberg , E. and Gildberg , A. 1995 . The stimulatory effect of a muscle protein hydrolysate from Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua L., on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., head kidney leucocytes . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , in press
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cahill , M. M. 1990 . Bacterial flora of fishes: a review . Microb. Ecol. , 19 : 21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerenius , L. , Liang , Z. , Duvic , B. , Keyser , P. , Hellman , U. , Palvo , E. T. , Iwanaga , S. and Söderhäll , K. 1994 . Structure and biological activity of a 1,3‐β‐d‐glucan‐binding protein in crustacean blood . J. Biol. Chem. , 269 : 1 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheers , C. , Zhan , Y. F. and Egan , P. J. 1990 . In vivo IL‐1 potentiates both specific and non‐specific arms of immune response to infection . Immunology , 70 : 411 – 413 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , D. and Ainsworth , A. J. 1992 . Glucan administration potentiates immune defense mechanisms of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque . J. Fish Dis. , 15 : 295 – 304 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirigos , M. A. 1992 . Immunomodulators: current and future development and application . Thymus. , 19 (Suppl. 1) : 7 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Chirigos , M. A. and De Simone , C. 1993 . Immunoregulatory biological response modifiers: effect of cytokines on septic shock . Mediators Inflammation , 2 : 5 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , B. , Fink , J. , Merrifield , R. B. and Mauzerall , D. 1988 . Channel‐forming properties of cecropins and related model compounds incorporated into planar lipid membranes . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA. , 85 : 5072 – 5076 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clem , L. W. , Sizemore , R. C. and Elsaesser , C. F. 1985 . Monocytes as accessory cells in fish immune responses . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 9 : 803 – 809 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cyprioano , R. C. and Pyle , S. W. 1985 . Adjuvant dependent immunity and the agglutinin response of fishes against Aeromonas salmonicida cause of furunculosis . Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. , 42 (7) : 1290 – 1295 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czop , J. K. and Austen , K. F. 1985 . Properties of glycans that activate the human alternative complement pathway and interact with the human monocyte β‐glucan receptor . J. Immunol. , 135 : 3388 – 3393 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czop , J. K. and Austen , K. F. 1985 . Generation of leukotrienes by human monocytes upon stimulation of their β‐glucan receptor during phagocytosis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA. , 82 : 2751 – 2755 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czop , J. K. and Kay , J. 1991 . Isolation and characterization of β‐glucan receptors on human mononudear phagocytes . J. Exp. Med. , 173 : 1511 – 1520 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalmo , R. A. , Ingebrigtsen , K. , Horsberg , T. E. and Seljelid , R. 1994 . Intestinal absorption of immunomodulatory laminaran and derivatives in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L . J. Fish Dis. , 17 : 579 – 589 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalmo , R. A. and Seljelid , R. 1995 . The immunomodulatory effect of LPS, laminaran and sulfated laminaran (β(1,3)‐D‐glucan) on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., macrophages in vitro . J. Fish Dis. , 18 : 175 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dannevig , B. H. , Struksnæs , G. , Skogh , T. , Kindberg , G. Mørk and Berg , T. 1990 . Endocytosis via the scavenger‐ and the mannose‐receptor in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) pronephros is carried out by nonphagocytic cells . Fish Physiol. Biochem. , 8 (3) : 229 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darvill , A. G. and Albersheim , P. 1984 . Phytoalexins and their elicitors — a defense against microbial infections in plants . Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. , 35 : 243 – 275 .
   Google Scholar
• Davina , J. H. M. , Rijkers , G. T. , Rombout , J. H. W. M. , Timmermans , L. P. M. and van Muiswinkel , W. B. 1980 . “ Lymphoid and non‐lymphoid cells in the intestine of cyprinid fish ” . In Development and Differentiation of Vertebrate Lymphocytes , Edited by: Horton , J. D. 129 – 140 . Amsterdam : Elsevier/North‐Holland Biomedical Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , J. F. and Hayasaka , S. S. 1984 . The enhancement of resistance of the American eel, Anguilla rostrata LeSueur, to a pathogenic bacterium, Aeromonas hydrophila, by an extract of the tunicate, Ecteinasddia turbinata . J. Fish Dis. , 7 (4) : 311 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Felippe , J. , da Rocha e Silva , M. , Maciel , F. M. B. , de Macedo Soares , A. and Mendes , N. F. 1993 . Infection prevention in patients with severe multiple trauma with the immunomodulator beta 1–3 polyglucose (glucan) . Surg., Gynecol. and Obst. , 177 : 383 – 388 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Di Luzio , N. R. , Williams , D. L. , McNamee , R. B. , Edwards , B. F. and Kitahama , A. 1979 . Comparative tumor‐inhibitory and anti‐bacterial activity of soluble and paniculate glucan . Int. J. Cancer , 24 : 773 – 779 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Luzio , N. R. 1983 . Immunopharmacology of glucan: a broad spectrum enhancer of host defense mechanisms . Trends Pharmacol. Sci. , 4 : 344 – 347 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Luzio , N. R. 1985 . Update on the immunomodulating activities of glucans . Springer Semin. Immunopathol. , 8 : 387 – 400 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrich , F. M. , Sackman , W. , Zak , O. and Dukor , P. 1981 . “ Synthetic muramyldipeptide immunostimulants: Protective effects and increased efficacy of antibiotics in experimental bacterial and fungal infections in mice ” . In Current Chemotherapy and Infectious Disease , Edited by: Nelson , J. D. and Grassi , C. Vol. 2 , 1730 – 1735 . American Society of Microbiology .
   Google Scholar
• Doggett , T. A. and Harris , J. E. 1987 . The ontogeny of gut‐associated lymphoid tissue in Orechromis mossambicus . J. Fish Biol. , 31 (Suppl. A) : 23 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Dunn , E. J. , Polk , A. , Scarrett , D. J. , Olivier , G. , Lall , S. and Gossen , M. F. A. 1990 . Vaccines in aquaculture: the search for an efficient delivery system . Aquacultural Eng. , 9 : 23 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , A. E. 1982 . “ Differences between the immune mechanisms of fish and higher vertebrates ” . In Microbial Diseases of Fish , Edited by: Roberts , R. J. 1 – 29 . London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ellis , A. E. 1988 . “ Ontogeny of the immune system in teleost fish ” . In Fish Vaccination , Edited by: Ellis , A. E. 20 – 31 . London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ellsaesser , C. F. 1989 . Identification and Characterization of High and Low Molecular Weight Species of Channel Catfish Interleukin‐1 , Jackson , MS : University of Mississippi Medical Center . Ph.D. thesis
   Google Scholar
• Engstad , R. E. , Robertsen , B. and Frivold , E. 1992 . Yeast glucan induces increase in activity of lysozyme and complement‐mediated haemolytic activity in Atlantic salmon blood . Fish and Shellfish Immunol. , 2 : 287 – 297 .
   Google Scholar
• Engstad , R. E. and Robertsen , B. 1993 . Recognition of yeast cell wall glucan by Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) macrophages . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 17 : 319 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engstad , R. 1994 . Yeast β‐Glucan as an Immunostimulant in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.). Biological Effects, Recognition and Structural Aspects , Norway : The Norwegian College of Fishery Science, University of Tromsø . Dr.Sc. thesis
   Google Scholar
• Engstad , R. E. and Robertsen , B. 1994 . Specificity of a β‐glucan receptor on macrophages from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 18 (5) : 397 – 408 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdal , J. I. , Evensen , Ø. , Kaurstad , O. K. , Lillehaug , A. , A. , Solbakken , R. and Thorud , K. 1991 . Relationship between diet and immune response in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) after feeding various levels of ascorbic acid and omega‐3‐fatty‐acids . Aquaculture , 98 : 363 – 379 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , D. L. and Jaso‐Friedmann , L. 1992 . Nonspecific cytotoxic cells as effectors of immunity in fish . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , : 109 – 121 .
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher , T. C. 1982 . Non‐specific defense mechanisms in fish . Dev. Comp. Immunol. Suppl. , 2 : 123 – 132 .
   Google Scholar
• Floch , F. , Poirier , J. , Fizames , C. and Woehrle , R. 1987 . “ Pimelautide (R. P. 40 639). From experimental results to clinical trials: an illustration ” . In Immunostimulants: Now and Tomorrow , Edited by: Azuma , I. and Joliès , G. 183 – 204 . Berlin : Japan Science Society Press . Tokyo/Springer‐Verlag
   Google Scholar
• Fuller , R. 1992 . Probiotics. The Scientific Basis , London : Chapman and Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Fänge , R. 1994 . Blood cells, haemopoiesis and lymphomyeloid tissues in fish . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 4 : 405 – 411 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganz , T. , Selsted , M. E. and Lehrer , R. I. 1992 . “ Defensins in macrophages ” . In Mononuclear Phagocytes. Biology of Monocytes and Macrophages , Edited by: van Furth , R. 268 – 272 . Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Georgopoulou , U. , Sire , M. F. and Vernier , J. M. 1986 . Immunological demonstration of intestinal absorption and digestion of protein macromolcules in the trout (Salmo gairdneri) . Cell Tissue Res. , : 245 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgopoulou , U. , Dabrowski , K. , Sire , M. F. and Vernier , J. M. 1988 . Absorption of intact protein by the intestinal epithelium of trout Salmo gairdneri. A luminescence enzyme immunoassay and cytochemical study . Cell Tissue Res. , 251 : 145 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman , R. 1988a . Characteristics of the β‐glucan receptor of murine macrophages . Exp. Cell Res. , 174 : 481 – 490 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman , R. 1988b . Induction of a β‐1,3‐d‐glucan receptor in P388D1 cells treated with retinoic acid or 1.2.5‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 . Immunology , 63 : 319 – 324 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grace , M. F. , Bortham , J. V. and Manning , M. J. 1981 . “ Ontogeny of the lymphoid organ function in fish ” . In Aspects of Developmental and Comparative Immunology , Edited by: Solomon , J. B. 467 – 486 . Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Graham , S. and Secombes , C. J. 1988 . The production of a macrophage‐activating factor from rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri leukocytes . Immunology , 65 : 293 – 297 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grayson , T. H. , Williams , R. J. , Wrathmell , A. B. , Munn , C. B. and Harris , J. E. 1987 . Effects of immunopotentiating agents on the immune responses of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, to ERM vaccine . J. Fish Biol. , 31 (Suppl. A) : 195 – 202 .
   Google Scholar
• Grinde , B. 1989 . Lysozyme from rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, as an antibacterial agent against fish pathogens . J. Fish Dis. , 12 : 95 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groisman , E. A. , Parra‐Lopez , C. , Salcedo , M. , Lipps , C. J. and Heffron , F. 1992 . Resistance to host antimicobial peptides is necessary for Salmonella virulence . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA. , 89 : 11939 – 11943 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadden , J. W. 1993 . Immunostimulants . Immunol. Today , 14 (6) : 275 – 280 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hardie , L. J. , Marsden , M. J. , Fletcher , T. C. and Secombes , C. J. 1983 . In vitro addition of vitamin C affects rainbow trout lymphocyte responses . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 3 : 207 – 219 .
   Google Scholar
• Hardie , L. J. , Fletcher , T. C. and Secombes , C. J. 1990 . The effect of dietary vitamin C on the immune response of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L) . Aquaculture , 95 : 201 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardie , L. J. , Fletcher , T. C. , T. C. and Secombes , C. J. 1990 . The effect of vitamin E on the immune response of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L) . Aquaculture , 87 : 1 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardie , L. J. , Chappell , L. H. and Secombes , C. J. 1993 . The role of tumor necrosis factor a as a modulator of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss leucocyte responses . The Nordic Symp. on Fish Immunology . May 19–22 1993 , Lysekil .
   Google Scholar
• Hardie , L. J. , Fletcher , T. C. and Secombes , C. J. 1994 . Effect of temperature on macrophage activation and the production of macrophage activating factor by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) leucocytes . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 18 (1) : 57 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart , S. , Wrathmell , A. B. , Harris , J. E. and Grayson , T. H. 1988 . Gut immunology in fish: a review . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 12 : 453 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Havell , E. D. 1989 . Evidence that tumor necrosis factor has an important role in antibacterial resistance . J. Immunol. , 143 : 2894 – 2899 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildemann , W. H. 1959 . A cichlid fish, Symphysodon discus, with unique nurture habits . Amer. Nat. , 93 : 27 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjelmeland , K. and Raa , J. 1982 . Characteristics of two trypsin isozymes isolated from the arctic fish capelin (Meilotus villosus) . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. , 71B : 557 – 662 .
   Google Scholar
• Hjelmeland , K. , Christie , M. and Raa , J. 1983 . Skin mucus protease from rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, and its biological significance . J. Fish Biol. , 23 : 13 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann , J. A. and Hetru , C. 1992 . Insect defensins: inducible antibacterial peptides . Immunol. Today , 13 (10) : 411 – 415 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huis in't Veld , J. H. J. , Havenaar , R. and Marteau , P. 1994 . Establishing a scientific basis for probiotic R and D . Trends Biotechnol. , 12 : 6 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hultmark , D. 1993 . Immune reaction in Drosophila and other insects: a model for innate immunity . Trends Genet. , 9 (5) : 178 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt , T. C. and Rowley , A. F. 1986 . Leukotriene B4 induces enhanced migration of fish leucocytes in vitro . Immunology , 59 : 563 – 568 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingebrigtsen , K. , Horsberg , T. E. , Dalmo , R. and Seljelid , R. 1993 . Tissue distribution of the immuno‐modulator aminated β1–3 polyglucose in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) after intravenous, intraperitoneal and peroral administration . Aquaculture , 117 : 29 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingram , G. A. 1980 . Substances involved in the natural resistance of fish to infections. A review . J. Fish Biol. , 16 : 23 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeney , G. and Andersen , D. P. 1993 . Glucan injection or bath exposure given alone or in combination with a bacterin enhance the non‐specific defense mechanisms in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) . Aquaculture , 116 : 315 – 329 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , P. G. , Harris , J. E. and Pulsford , A. L. 1991 . Enhanced enteric uptake of human gamma globulin by Quil‐A in Oreochromis mossambicus . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 1 : 279 – 295 .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , P. G. , Harris , J. E. and Pulsford , A. L. 1992 . Quantitative serological aspects of enhanced enteric uptake of human gamma globulin by Quil‐A in Oreochromis mossambicus . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 2 : 193 – 209 .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , P. G. , Wrathmell , A. B. , Harris , J. E. and Pulsford , A. L. 1994 . Systemic and mucosal immune responses to enterically delivered antigen in Oreochoromis mossambicus . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 4 : 255 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson , M. W. and Söderhäll , K. 1985 . Exocytosis of the prophenoloxidase activating system from crayfish haemocytes . J. Comp. Physiol. , 156 : 175 – 181 .
   Google Scholar
• Johansson , M. W. , Keyser , P. and Söderhäll , K. 1994 . Purification and cDNA cloning of a four‐domain Kazal proteinase inhibitor from crayfish blood cells . Eur. J. Biochem. , 223 : 389 – 394 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson , E. , Bøgwald , J. and Seljelid , R. 1982 . Evidence that agarose must be internalized to stimulate mouse macrophages in vitro . Scand. J. Immunol. , 16 : 525 – 530 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jong , S. C. and Birmingham , J. M. 1990 . The medicinal value of the mushroom Grifola . World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 6 : 227 – 235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jong , S. C. and Birmingham , J. M. 1993 . Medicinal and therapeutic value of the Shiitake mushroom . Adv. in Appl. Microbiol. , 39 : 153 – 184 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jørgensen , J. B. , Lunde , H. and Robertsen , B. 1993a . Peritoneal and head kidney cell response to intraperitoneally injected yeast glucan in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) . J. Fish Dis. , 16 : 313 – 325 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jørgensen , J. B. , Sharp , G. J. E. , Secombes , C. J. and Robertsen , B. 1993b . Effect of yeast‐cell‐wall glucan on the bactericidal activity of rainbow trout macrophages . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 3 : 267 – 277 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jørgensen , J. B. 1994 . Stimulation of Antibacterial Mechanisms in Salmonid Macrophages by Yeast β‐Glucan and Bacterial Lipopolysaccharide , Norway : The Norwegian College of Fishery Science, University of Tromsø . Dr.Sc. thesis
   Google Scholar
• Kajita , Y. , Sakai , M. , Atsuta , S. and Kobayashi , M. 1990 . The immunomodulatory effects of levamisole on rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss . Fish Pathol. , 25 (1) : 93 – 98 .
   Google Scholar
• Kajita , Y. , Sakai , M. , Atsuta , S. and Kobayashi , M. 1992 . Immunopotentiation activity of Freund's complete adjuvant in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss . Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi , 58 : 433 – 437 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamisato , J. K. and Nowakowski , M. 1988 . M. Morphological and biochemical alterations of macrophages produced by a glucan, PSK . Immunopharmacology , 16 : 88 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Kaneko , Y. and Chihara , G. 1992 . “ G. Potentiation of host resistance against microbial infections by lentinan and its related polysaccharides ” . In Microbial Infections: Role of Biological Response Modifiers , Edited by: Friedman , H. , Klein , T. W. and Yamaguchi , H. 201 – 215 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kehrli , M. E. Jr. and Roth , J. A. 1990 . Chemically induced immunomodulation in domestic food animals . Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med. , 35 : 103 – 119 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kiser , J. S. , Lindh , H. and de Mello , G. C. 1956 . The effect of various substances on resistance to experimental infections . Ann. N.Y. Acad. of Sci. , 66 : 312 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitao , T. and Yoshida , Y. 1986 . Effect of an immunopotentiator on Aeromonas salmonicida infection in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) . Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. , 12 (1–4) : 287 – 296 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitao , T. , Yoshida , T. , Anderson , D. P. , Dixon , O. W. and Blanch , A. 1987 . Immunostimulation of antibody‐producing cells and humoral antibody to fish bacterins by a biological response modifier . J. Fish Biol. , 31 (Suppl. A) : 87 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Kodama , H. , Hirota , Y. , Mukamoto , M. , Baba , T. and Azuma , I. 1993 . Activation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) phagocytes by muramyl dipeptide . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 17 : 129 – 140 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lall , S. P. , Olivier , G. , Weerakoon , D. E. M. and Hines , J. A. 1989 . The effect of vitamin C deficiency and excess on immune response in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) . Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Feeding and Nutrition in Fish . 1989 , Toba , Japan. pp. 427 – 441 .
   Google Scholar
• Lamers , C. H. J. and DeHaas , M. J. H. 1985 . Antigen localization in the lymphoid organs of carp (Cyprinus carpio) . Cell Tissue Res. , 24.2 : 491 – 498 .
   Google Scholar
• Lamers , C. H. J. 1986 . Histophysiology of a primary immune response against Aeromonas hydrophila in carp (Cyprinus carpio L) . J. Exp. Zool. , 238 : 71 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Laval , A. , Rommain , M. , Fortier , M. , Zalisz , R. , Dahan , R. and Smets , P. 1988 . Immunomodulating effects of orally administered Ru 41740 (Biostim®) in the swine . Adv. Biosci. , 68 : 103 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , J.‐Y. , Boman , A. , Chuanxin , S. , Andersson , M. , Jörnvall , H. , Mutt , V. and Boman , H. G. 1989 . Antibacterial peptides from pig intestine: isolationof a mammalian cecropin . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.SA. , 86 : 9159 – 9162 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leong , J. C. and Fryer , J. L. 1993 . Viral vaccines for aquaculture . Annu. Rev. of Fish Dis. , : 225 – 240 .
   Google Scholar
• Lillehaug , A. 1989a . A survey on different procedures used for vaccinating salmonids against vibriosis in Norwegian fish‐farming . Aquaculture , 83 : 217 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lillehaug , A. 1989b . Oral immunization of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, against vibriosis with vaccines protected against digestive degradation . J. Fish Dis. , 12 : 579 – 584 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luettig , B. , Steinmüller , C. , Gifford , G. E. , Wagner , H. and Lohmann‐Matthes , M.‐L. 1989 . Macrophage activation by the polysaccharide arabinogalactan isolated from plant cell cultures of Echinacea purpurea . J. Nat. Cancer Inst. , 81 (9) : 669 – 676 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacArthur , J. I. , Fletcher , T. C. and Pirie , B. J. S. 1984 . Peritoneal inflammatory cells in plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L.: effect of stress and endotoxin . J. Fish Biol. , 25 : 69 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacArthur , J. I. , Fletcher , T. C. , Pirie , B. J. S. , Davidson , R. J. L. and Thomson , A. W. 1985 . Aspects of leucotyte migration in the plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L . J. Fish Biol. , 27 : 677 – 676 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manners , D. J. , Masson , A. J. and Patterson , J. C. 1973 . The structure of a β‐1,3‐d‐glucan from yeast cell walls . Biochem. J. , 135 : 19 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marchalonis , J. J. and Schluter , S. F. 1990 . Origins of immunoglobulins and immune recognition molecules . Bioscience , 40 : 758 – 768 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , G. G. and Hose , J. E. 1987 . Structure of hemopoietic nodules in the ridgeback prawn, Sicyonia ingentis: light and electron microscopic observations . J. Morphol. , 192 : 193 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuo , K. and Miyazono , I. 1993 . The influence of long‐term administration of peptidoglycan on disease resistance and growth of juvenile rainbow trout . Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi , 59 (8) : 1377 – 1379 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuyama , H. , Mangindaan , R. E. P. and Yano , T. 1992 . Protective effect of schizophyllan and scleroglucan against Streptococcus sp. in yellowtail (Seriola quiqueradiata) . Aquaculture , 101 : 197 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCall , C. A. , Weirner , L. , Baldwin , S. and Pearson , F. C. 1989 . Biotherapy: a new dimension in cancer treatment . Biotechnology , 7 : 231 – 240 .
   Google Scholar
• McCumber , L. J. , Trauger , T. and Sigel , M. M. 1981 . Modification of the immune system of the American eel Anguilla rostrata, by ETE . Dev. Biol. Stand. , 49 : 289 – 294 .
   Google Scholar
• McLean , E. and Ash , R. 1986 . The time‐course of appearance and net accumulation of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) presented orally to juvenile carp Cyprinus carpio (L) . Camp. Biochem. Physiol. , 84 : 687 – 690 .
   Google Scholar
• McLean , E. and Ash , R. 1987 . Intact protein (antigen) absorption in fishes: mechanism and physiological significance . J. Fish Biol. , 31 (Suppl. A) : 219 – 223 .
   Google Scholar
• McLean , E. and Donaldson , E. M. 1990 . Absorption of bioactive proteins by the gastrointestinal tract of fish: a review . J. Aquat. Anim. Health , 2 : 1 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• McLean , E. and Ash , R. 1990 . Modified uptake of the protein antigen horseradish peroxidase (HRP), following oral delivery to rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss . Aquaculture , 87 : 373 – 379 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean , E. and Donaldson , E. M. 1990 . Absorption of bioactive proteins by the gastrointestinal tract of fish. A review . J. Aquat. Anim. Health , 2 : 1 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• McLean , E. , von der Meden , A. C. and Donaldson , E. M. 1990 . Direct and indirect evidence for polypeptide adsorption by the teleost gastrointestinal tract . J. Fish Biol. , 36 : 489 – 498 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , N. W. and Clem , L. W. 1984 . Temperature mediated processes in teleost immunity: differential effects of temperature on catfish in vitro antibody responses to thymus‐dependent and thymus‐independent antigens . J. Immunol. , 133 : 2356 – 2359 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möck , A. and Peters , G. 1990 . Lysozyme activity in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), stressed by handling, transport and water pollution . J. Fish Biol. , 37 : 873 – 885 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mor , A. and Avtalion , R. R. 1990 . Transfer of antibody activity from immunized mother to embryo in tilapias . J. Fish Biol. , 37 : 249 – 255 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , K. S. , Bevins , C. L. , Brasseur , M. M. , Tomassini , N. , Turner , K. , Eck , H. and Zasloff , M. 1991 . Antimicrobial peptides in the stomach of Xenopus laevis . J. Biol. Chetn. , 266 (29) : 19851 – 19857 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munn , C. B. and Trust , T. J. 1983 . Infection of rainbow trout by opportunist pathogens following subcutaneous injection of Freund's adjuvant . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 7 (1) : 193 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najjar , V. A. 1984 . Tuftsin, a natural activator of phagocyte cells: an overview . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 419 : 1 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarre , O. and Halver , J. E. 1989 . Disease resistance and humoral antibody production in rainbow trout fed high levels of vitamin C . Aquaculture , 79 : 207 – 221 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemunaitis , J. 1993 . Macrophage function activating cytokines: potential clinical application . Crit. Rev. Oncol/Hematol. , 14 : 153 – 171 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikl , L. , Albright , L. J. and Evelyn , T. P. T. 1991 . Influence of seven immunostimulants on the immune response of coho salmon to Aeromonas salmonicida . Dis. Aquat. Org. , 12 : 7 – 12 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikl , L. , Albright , L. J. and Evelyn , T. P. T. 1992 . Immunostimulants hold promise in furunculosis prevention . Bull. Aquacult. Assoc. Can. , 92–1 : 49 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Nikl , L. , Evelyn , T. P. T. and Albright , L. J. 1993 . Trials with an orally and immersion‐administered β‐1,3 glucan as an immunoprophylactic against Aeromonas salmonicida in juvenile chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha . Dis. of Aquat. Org. , 17 : 191 – 196 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noworthy , A. 1983 . Beneficial Effects of Endotoxins , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Numasaki , Y. , Kikuchi , M. , Sugiyama , Y. and Ohba , Y. 1990 . A glucan, sizofiran: T cell adjuvant property and antitumor and cytotoxic macrophage inducing activities . Oyo Yakuri Pharmacometrics , 39 (1) : 39 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Donnell , G. B. , Smith , P. R. , Kilmartin , J. J. and Moran , A. P. 1994 . Uptake and fate of orally administered bacterial lipopolysaccharide in brown trout (Salmo trutta) . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 4 : 285 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odean , M. J. , Frane , C. M. , van Dervieren , M. , Tomai , M. A. and Johnnson , A. G. 1990 . Involvement of gamma interferon in antibody enhancement by adjuvants . Infection Immunity , 58 (2) : 427 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohno , M. , Kurachi , K. and Yadomae , T. 1987 . Antitumor activities of a highly branched (l‐3)‐β‐d‐glucan, SSG, obtained from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum IFO 9395 . J. Pharmacobiodynamics , 10 : 478 – 486 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Olafsen , J. A. 1984 . “ Ingestion of bacteria by cod (Gadus morhua L.) larvae ” . In The Propagation of Cod, Gadus morhua L , Edited by: Dahl , E. , Danielsen , D. S. , Moksness , E. and Solemdal , P. Vol. 1 , 627 – 643 . Bergen , , Norway : Flødevigen rapportserier, Marine Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Olafsen , J. A. and Hansen , G. H. 1992 . Intact antigen uptake in intestinal epithelial cells of marine fish larvae . J. Fish Biol. , 40 : 141 – 156 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivier , G. , Evelyn , T. P. T. and Lallier , R. 1985 . Immunity of Aeromonas salmonicida in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) induced by modified Freund's complete adjuvant: its non‐specific nature and the probable role of macrophages in the phenomenon . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 9 (3) : 419 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivier , G. , Eaton , C. A. and Campell , N. 1986 . Interaction between Aeromonas salmonicida and peritoneal macrophages of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) . Vet. Immunol Immunopathol. , 12 : 223 – 234 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onarheim , A. M. and Raa , J. 1990 . “ Characteristics and possible biological significance of an autochthonous flora in the intestinal mucosa of sea‐water fish ” . In Microbiology in Poecilotherms , Edited by: Lesél , R. 197 – 200 . Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Onarheim , A. M. 1992 . Now a yeast extract to fortify fish . Fish Farmer , 15 (4) July/August : 45
   Google Scholar
• Onderdonk , A. B. , Cisneros , R. L. , Hinkson , P. and Osstroff , G. 1992 . Anti‐infective effect of poly‐β1–6‐glucotriosyl‐β1–3‐glucopyranose glucan in vivo . Infection Immunity , 60 : 1642 – 1647 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perdigan , G. and Alvarez , S. 1992 . “ Probiotics and the immune state ” . In Probiotics. The Scientific Basis , Edited by: Fuller , R. 145 – 180 . London : Chapman and Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Person , M. , Vey , A. and Söderhäll , K. 1987 . Encapsulation of foreign particles in vitro by separated blood cells from crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus . Cell Tissue Res. , 147 : 409 – 415 .
   Google Scholar
• Peters , G. , Faisal , M. , Lang , T. and Ahmed , I. 1998 . Stress caused by social interaction and its effect on susceptibility to Aeromonas hydrophila infection in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri . Dis. Aquat. Org. , 4 : 83 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• Pettitt , T. R. , Rowley , A. F. and Secombes , C. J. 1989a . Lipoxins are major lipoxygenase products of rainbow trout macrophages . FEBS Letters , 259 : 168 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettitt , T. R. , Rowley , A. F. and Barrow , S. E. 1989b . Synthesis of leukotriene B and other conjugated triene lipoxygenase products by blood cells of the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri . Biocbimi. Biophys. Acta , 1993 : 1 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Pettitt , T. R. , Rowley , A. F. , Barrow , S. E. , Mallet , A. I. and Secombes , C. J. 1991 . Synthesis of lipoxins and other lipoxygenase products by macrophages from the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss . J. Biol. Chem. , 266 : 8720 – 8726 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickering , A. D. , Pottinger , T. G. and Christie , P. 1982 . Recovery of the brown trout, Salmo trutta L., from acute handling stress: a time‐course study . J. Fish Biol. , 20 : 229 – 244 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickering , A. D. 1989 . Environmental stress and the survival of brown trout, Salmo trutta . Freshwater Biol. , 21 : 47 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plumb , J. A. , Vinitnantharat , S. and Paterson , W. D. 1994 . Optimum concentration of Edwardsiella ictaluri vaccine in feed for oral vaccination of channel catfish . J. Aquat. Anim. Health , 6 : 188 – 121 .
   Google Scholar
• Raa , J. , Rørstad , G. , Engstad , R. and Robertsen , B. 1992 . “ The use of immunostimulants to increase resistance of aquatic organisms to microbial infections ” . In Diseases in Asian Aquaculture , Edited by: Shariff , I. M. , Subasinghe , R. P. and Arthus , J. R. 39 – 50 . Manila , , Philippines : Fish Health Section, Asian Fisheries Society .
   Google Scholar
• Raetz , C. H. R. 1990 . Biochemistry of endotoxins . Annu. Rev. Biochem. , 59 : 129 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen‐Busund , L.‐T. 1991 . Immunomodulatory Effects of β‐1,3‐D‐Polyglucose Derivatives in Experimental Peritonitis , Norway : Institute of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø . M.D. thesis
   Google Scholar
• Ratcliffe , N. A. , Rowley , A. F. , Fitzgerald , S. W. and Rhodes , C. P. 1985 . Invertebrate immunity: basic concepts and recent advances . Int. Rev. Cytol. , 97 : 183 – 350 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan , L. J. and Thuvander , A. 1992 . In vitro stimulation of salmonid leucocytes with mitogens and with Aeromonas salmonicida . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 1 : 297 – 307 .
   Google Scholar
• Rietschel , E. T. and Brade , H. 1992 . Bacterial endotoxins . Sci. Am. , August : 26 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rietschel , E. T. , Kirikae , T. , Schade , F. U. , Ulmer , A. J. , Holst , O. , Brade , H. , Schmidt , G. , Mamat , U. , Grimmecke , H. D. , Kusumoto , S. and Zahringer , U. 1993 . The chemical structure of bacterial endotoxin in relation to bioactivity . Immunobiology , 187 : 169 – 180 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggi , S. J. and De Luzio , N. R. 1961 . Identification of a RE stimulating agent in zymosan . Am. J. Physiol. , 200 : 297 – 305 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robertsen , B. , Rørstad , G. , Engstad , R. and Raa , J. 1990 . Enhancement of non‐specific resistance in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., by a glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls . J. Fish Dis. , 13 : 391 – 400 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertsen , B. , Engstad , E. and Jørgensen , J. B. 1994 . “ β‐Glucans as immunostimulants in fish ” . In Modulators of Fish Immune Responses, Models for Environmental Toxicology/Biomarkers, Immunostimulators , Edited by: Stolen , 0‐ S. and Fletcher , T. C. Vol. 1 , 83 – 99 . Fair Haven , NJ : SOS Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Roeder , D. J. , Lei , M.‐G. and Morrison , D. C. 1989 . Endotoxic lipopolysaccharide‐specific binding proteins on lymphoid cells of various animal species: association with endotoxin susceptibility . Infection and Immunity , 57 : 1054 – 1058 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rombout , J. H. W. M. , Lamers , C. H. J. , Helfrich , M. H. , Dekker , A. and Taverne‐Thiele , J. J. 1985 . Uptake and transport of intact macromolecules in the intestinal epithelium of the carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the possible immunological implications . Cell Tissue Res. , 239 : 519 – 530 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rombout , J. H. W. M. and van den Berg , A. A. 1989 . Immunological importance of the second gut segment in carp. I. Uptake and processing of antigens by epithelial cells and macrophages . J. Fish Biology , 35 : 15 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rombout , J. H. W. M. , Bot , H. E. and Taverne‐Thiele , J. J. 1989 . Immunologic importance of the second gut segment of carp. II. Characterization of mucosal leucocytes . J. Fish Biol. , 35 : 167 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rombout , J. H. W. M. , Taverne‐Thiele , J. J. and Villena , M. I. 1993 . The gut‐associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.): an immunocytochemical analysis . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 17 : 55 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rook , G. A. W. 1994 . “ Macrophages and Mycobacterium tuberculosis: the key to pathogenesis ” . In Macrophage‐Pathogen Interaction , Edited by: Zwilling , B. S. and Eisenstein , T. K. 249 – 261 . New York : Marcel Dekker .
   Google Scholar
• Rørstad , G. , Aasjord , P. M. and Robertsen , B. 1993 . Adjuvant effect of yeast glucan in vaccines against furunculosis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 3 : 179 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rørvik , K. A. , Salte , R. and Thomassen , M. 1991 . “ Effects of dietary iron and n‐3 unsaturated fatty acids (omega‐3) on health and immunological parameters in farmed salmon ” . In Proc. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathologists 71 Budapest , , Hungary
   Google Scholar
• Saito , H. , Yoshioka , Y. and Uehara , N. 1991 . Relationship between conformation and biological response for (1–3)‐β‐d‐glucans in the activation of coagulation factor G from limulus amebocyte lysate and host‐mediated antitumor activity. Demonstration of single‐helix conformation as a stimulant . Carbohyd. Res. , 217 : 181 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakai , D. K. 1992 . Repertoire of complement in immunological defense mechanisms . Ann. Rev. Fish. Dis. , 2 : 223 – 247 .
   Google Scholar
• Sakai , M. , Kamiya , H. , Atsuta , S. and Kobayashi , M. 1991 . Immonomodulatory effects on rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, injected with the extract of abalone, Haliotis discus hannai . J. Appl. Ichthyol. , 7 (1) : 54 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakai , M. , Kamiya , H. , Ishii , S. , Atsuta , S. and Kobayashi , M. 1992 . The immunostimulating effects of chitin in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss . Dis. Asian Aquacult. , 1 : 413 – 417 .
   Google Scholar
• Sakai , M. , Otubo , T. , Atsuta , S. and Koyabashi , M. 1993 . Enhancement of resistance to bacterial infection in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), by oral administration of bovine lactoferrin . J. Fish Dis. , 16 : 239 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakurai , T. , Suzuki , I. , Kinoshita , A. , Oikawa , S. , Masuda , A. , Ohsawa , M. and Yadomae , T. 1991 . Effect of intraperitoneally administered β‐1,3‐glucan, SSG, obtained from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum IFO 9395 on the functions of murine alveolar macrophages . Chem. Pharm. Bull. , 39 (1) : 214 – 217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakurai , T. , Ohno , N. and Yadomae , T. 1992 . Intravenously administrated (1–3)‐β‐D‐glucan, SSG, obtained from Sclerotinia sclerotiorum IFO 9395 augments murine peritoneal macrophage functions in vivo . Chem. Pharmaceut. Bull, (Tokyo) , 40 : 2120 – 2124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salati , F. , Ikeda , Y. and Kusuda , R. 1987 . Effect of Edwardsiella tarda lipopolysaccharide immunization on phagocytosis in the eel . Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi , 53 : 201 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Salte , R. , Thomassen , M. S. and Wold , K. 1988 . Do high levels of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA/DHA) prevent diseases associated with membrane degeneration in farmed Atlantic salmon at low water temperatures? . Bull. Eur. Assoc. of Fish Pathol. , 8 : 63 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Sasaki , T. , Takasuka , N. , Chihara , G. and Maeda , Y. Y. 1976 . Antitumor activity of degraded products of Ientinan: its correlation with molecular weight . Gann , 67 : 191 – 195 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Satyabudhy , A. M. A. , Grant , B. F. and Halver , J. E. 1989 . Effects of L‐ascorbyl phosphates (AsPP) on growth and immunoresistance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN) virus . Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. Feeding and Nutrition in Fish . 1989 , Toba , Japan. pp. 411 – 426 .
   Google Scholar
• Schwacha , M. G. , Gudewicz , P. W. , Snyder , J. A. and Loegering , D. J. 1993 . Depression of macrophage respiratory burst capacity and arachidonic acid release after Fc receptor‐mediated phagocytosis . J. Immunol. , 150 (1) : 236 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Secombes , C. J. , Manning , M. J. and Ellis , A. E. 1982 . The effect of primary and secondary immunization on the lymphoid tissues of carp, Cyprinus carpio L . J. Exp. Zool. , 220 : 277 – 287 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Secombes , C. J. and Fletcher , T. C. 1992 . The role of phagocytes in the protective mechanisms of fish . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , 2 : 53 – 71 .
   Google Scholar
• Secombes , C. J. 1994 . Enhancement of fish phagocyte activity . Fish Shellfish Immunol. , 4 : 421 – 436 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. , Bøgwald , J. and Lundwall , À. 1981 . Glycan stimulation of macrophages in vitro . Exp. Cell Res. , 131 : 121 – 129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. , Bøgwald , J. , Hoffman , J. and Larm , O. 1984 . A soluble β‐1,3‐d‐glucan derivative potentiates the cytostatic and cytolytic capacity of mouse peritoneal macrophages, in vitro . Immunopharmacology , 7 : 69 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. , Bøgwald , J. , Rasmussen , L.‐T. , Hoffman , J. , Berge , A. and Ugelstad , J. 1985 . In vivo activation of mouse macrophages with β‐1,3‐d‐glucan‐derivated plastic beads . Scand. J. Immunol. , 21 : 601 – 605 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. 1986 . A water soluble aminated β‐1,3‐d‐glucan derivate causes repression of solid tumors in mice . Biosci. Rep. , 6 : 845 – 851 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. , Figenschau , Y. , Bøgwald , J. , Rasmussen , L. T. and Austgulen , R. 1989 . Evidence that tumour necrosis induced by aminated β‐1,3‐d‐polyglucose is mediated by a concerted action of local and systemic cytokines . Scand. J. Immunol. , 30 : 687 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seljelid , R. 1990 . “ Immunostimulators — medicine for the 90‐es? ” . In Pathogenesis of Wound Healing and Biomaterial‐Associated Infections , Edited by: Wadstrøm , T. , Eliasson , I. , Holder , I. and Ljung , A. 107 – 113 . London : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Selstad , M. E. , Miller , S. I. , Henschen , A. H. and Ouellette , A. J. 1992 . Enteric defensins: antibiotic components of intestinal host defense . J. Cell. Biol. , 118 (4) : 929 – 936 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selstad , M. E. , Tang , Y. Q. , Morris , W. L. , McGuire , P. A. , Novotny , M. J. , Smith , W. , Henschen , A. H. and Cullor , J. S. 1993 . Purification, primary structures, and antibacterial activities of beta‐definsins, a new family of antimicrobial peptides from bovine neutrophils . J. Biol. Chem. , 268 (9) : 6641 – 6648 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seto , A. 1994 . Immunostimulatory effect of yeast β‐1,3‐glucan (MacroGard) for marine and fresh water fish in Japan . Proc. 3rd Int. Marine Biotechnology Conf. 1994 , Tromsø , Norway.
   Google Scholar
• Sharp , G. J. E. , Pettitt , T. R. , Rowley , A. F. and Secombes , C. J. 1992 . Iipoxin‐induced migration of fish leukocytes . J. Leukocyte Biol. , 51 : 140 – 145 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinegaga , T. , Muta , T. , Toh , Y. , Tokunaga , F. and Iwanaga , S. J. 1990 . J. Biol. Chem. , 265 : 21350 – 21354 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shoenherr , W. D. , Pollman , D. S. and Coalson , J. A. 1994 . Titration of MacroGard on growth performance of nursery pigs . J. Anim. Sci. , 72 (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Sin , Y. M. , Ling , K. H. and Lam , T. J. 1993 . Passive transfer of protective immunity against ichthyophthiriasis from vaccinated mother to fry in tilapias, Oreochromis aureus . Aquaculture , 120 (1994) : 229 – 237 .
   Google Scholar
• Sire , M. F. and Vernier , J‐M. 1992 . Intestinal absorption of protein in teleost fish . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. , 103A : 771 – 781 .
   Google Scholar
• Siwicki , A. K. and Korwin‐Kossakowski , M. 1988 . The influence of levamisole on the growth of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) larvae . J. Appl. Ichthyol. , 4 (4) : 178 – 181 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siwicki , A. K. 1989 . Immunostimulatory influence of levamisole on non‐specific immunity in carp (Cyprinus carpio) . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 13 : 87 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siwicki , A. K. , Anderson , D. P. and Dixon , O. W. 1990 . In vitro immunostimulation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) spleen cells with levamisole . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 14 (2) : 231 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siwicki , A. K. , Anderson , D. P. and Rumsey , G. L. 1994 . Dietary intake of immunostimulants by rainbow trout affects non‐specific immunity and protection against furunculosis . Vet. Immunol., and Immunopathol. , 41 : 125 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smets , P. , Zalisz , R. , R. and Boisnic , F. 1988 . Biostim® (RU 41740), immune functions and infection . Adv. Biosci. , 68 : 85 – 102 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , P. D. and Braun‐Nesje , R. 1982 . Cell‐mediated immunity in the salmon: lymphocyte and macrophage stimulation, lymphocyte/macrophage interactions, and the production of lymphokine‐like factors by stimulated lymphocytes . Dev. and Comp. Immunol. , : 233 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , V. J. and Söderhäll , K. 1983 . K. β‐1,3‐glucan activation of crustacean hemocytes in vitro and in vivo . Biol. Bull. , 164 : 299 – 314 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song , Y‐L. and Sung , H. H. 1990 . Enhancement of growth in Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) by bacterin prepared from Vibrio vulnificus . Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. , 10 (4) : 98
   Google Scholar
• Song , Y‐L. and Hsieh , Y‐T. 1994 . Immunostimulation of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) hemocytes for generation of microbicidal substances: analysis of reactive oxygen species . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 18 (3) : 201 – 209 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl , P. D. 1992 . The mannose receptor and other macrophage lectins . Curr. Opin. Immunol. , 4 : 49 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes , C. R. 1984 . “ Induction and control of the intestinal immune response ” . In Local Immune Responses of the Gut , Edited by: Newby , T. J. and Stokes , C. R. 97 – 141 . Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Strand , H. K. , Hansen , T. K. , Pedersen , A. , Falk‐Petersen , I. B. and Øiestad , V. 1995 . First feeding of common wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) on formulated dry feed diets in a low‐water‐level race‐way system . Aquacult. Int. , in press
   Google Scholar
• Strøm , E. and Olafsen , J. A. 1990 . “ The indigenous microflora of wild‐captured juvenile cod in net‐pen rearing ” . In Microbiology in Poecilotherms , Edited by: Lésel , R. Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Sung , H. H. , Kou , G. H. and Song , Y. L. 1994 . Vibriosis resistance induced by glucan treatment in tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) . Fish Pathol. , 29 (1) : 11 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki , T. , Ohno , N. , Saito , K. and Yadomae , T. 1992 . Activation of the complement system by (1–3)‐β‐d‐glucans having different degrees of branching and different ultrastructures . J. Pharmacobio‐Dynamics , 15 : 277 – 285 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki , Y. and Iida , T. 1992 . Fish granulocytes in the process of inflammation . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , : 149 – 160 .
   Google Scholar
• Sveinbjørnsson , B. and Seljelid , R. 1994 . Aminated β‐1,3‐d‐polyglucose activates salmon pronephros macrophages in vitro . Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. , 41 : 113 – 123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sveinbjørnsson , B. , Smedsrød , B. , Berg , T. and Seljelid , R. 1994 . Intestinal uptake and organ distribution of immunomodulatory aminated β‐1,3‐d‐polyglucose in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L) . Fish Shellfish Immunol. ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Söderhäll , K. , Wingren , A. , Johansson , M. W. and Bertheussen , K. 1985 . The cytotoxic reaction from the freshwater crayfish, Astacus astacus . Cell. Immunol. , 94 : 326 – 332 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Söderhäll , K. and Cerenius , L. 1992 . Crustacean immunity . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , 2 : 3 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Söderhäll , K. , Cerenius , L. and Johansson , M. W. 1994 . The prophenoloxidase activating system and its role in invertebrate defense. Primordial immunity: foundations for the vertebrate immune system. 712 of the . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 712 : 155 – 161 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi , T. , Oka , T. , Iwana , H. , Kuwata , T. and Yamamoto , Y. 1993 . Immune response of mice to orally administered lactic acid bacteria . Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. , 57 (9) : 1557 – 1560 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tannok , G. W. 1988 . The normal microflora: a new concept in health promotion . Microbiol. Sci. , 5 (1) : 4 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thompson , A. , White , A. , Fletcher , T. C. , Houlihan , D. F. and Secombes , C. J. 1993 . The effect of stress on the immune response of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed diets containing different amounts of vitamin C . Aquaculture , 114 : 1 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , K. D. , Cachos , A. and Inglis , V. 1993 . Oncorhynchus mykiss . 2nd Symp. Diseases in Asian Aquaculture . 1993 , Phuket , Thailand. Immunomodulating effects of glucans in the presence of oxytetracycline in rainbow trout , pp. 31
   Google Scholar
• Totland , G. K. , Nylund , A. and Holm , K. O. 1988 . An ultrastructural study of morphological changes in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., during the development of cold water vibriosis . J. Fish Dis. , 11 : 1 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tristram , D. A. and Ogra , P. L. 1994 . “ Immunology of the gastrointestinal tract ” . In Viral Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract , Edited by: Kapikian , A. Z. New York : Marcel Dekker .
   Google Scholar
• Trust , T. J. 1986 . Pathogenesis of infectious diseases of fish . Annu. Rev. Microbiol. , 40 : 479 – 502 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsing , A. , Arcier , J. M. and Brehélin , M. 1989 . Hemocytes of penaeid and palaemonid shrimps: morphology, cytochemistry, and hemograms . J. Invertebrate Pathol. , 53 : 64 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valigra , L. 1994 . Engineering the future of antibiotics . New Sci. , April 30 : 25 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Vallejo , A. N. , Miller , N. W. and Clem , L. W. 1992 . Antigen processing and presentation in teleost immune responses . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , : 73 – 89 .
   Google Scholar
• van Loon , J. J. A. , van Oosterom , R. and Muiswinkel , W. B. 1981 . “ Development of the immune system in carp ” . In Aspects of Developmental and Comparative Immunology , Edited by: Solomon , J. B. 469 – 470 . Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Vasta , G. R. and Marchalonis , J. J. 1985 . Humoral and cell membrane‐associated lectins from invertebrates and lower chordates: specificity, molecular characterization and their structural relationships with putative recognition molecules from vertebrates . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 9 : 531 – 539 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkheimer , G. 1977 . Persorption of particles: physiology and phamacology . Adv. Pharmacol. Chemother. , 14 : 163 – 187 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waterstrat , P. R. , Ainsworth , A. J. and Gapley , G. 1991 . In vitro responses of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, neutrophils to Edwardsiella ictaluri . Dev. Comp. Immunol. , 15 : 53 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner , G. H. 1987 . “ Immunostimulants: the western scene ” . In Immunostimulants: Now and Tomorrow , Edited by: Azuma , I. and Joliés , G. 3 – 39 . Berlin : Japan Science Society Press . Tokyo/Springer‐Verlag
   Google Scholar
• White , A. , Fletcher , T. C. , Pepys , M. B. and Baldo , B. A. 1981 . The effect of inflammatory agents on C‐reactive protein and serum amyloid P‐component levels in plaice (Pleuroneches platessa L.) serum . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. , 65C : 325 – 329 .
   Google Scholar
• Wishkowsky , A. , Roberson , B. S. and Hetrick , F. M. 1987 . In vitro suppression of the phagocytic response of fish macrophages by tetracyclines . J. Fish. Biol. , 31A : 61 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolke , R. E. 1992 . Piscine macrophage aggregates: a review . Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. , : 91 – 108 .
   Google Scholar
• Waagbø , R. , Glette , J. , Nilsen , E. R. and Sandnes , K. 1993 . Dietary vitamin C., immunity and disease resistance in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) . J. Fish Physiol Biochem. , 12 : 61 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waagbø , R. 1994 . The impact of nutritional factors on the immune system in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L: a review . Aquacul. Fish. Manage. , 25 : 175 – 197 .
   Google Scholar
• Yano , R. , Mangindaan , R. E. P. and Matsuyama , H. 1989 . Enhancement of the resistance of carp Cyprinus carpio to experimental Edwardsiella tarda infection, by some β‐1,3‐glucans . Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi , 55 : 1815 – 1819 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yano , T. , Matsuyama , H. and Mangindaan , R. E. P. 1991 . Polysaccharide‐induced protection of carp, Cyprinus carpio L., against bacterial infection . J. Fish Dis. , 14 : 577 – 582 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zapata , A. G. , Torroba , M. , Alvarez , F. , Anderson , D. P. , Dixon , O. W. and Wisniewski , M. 1987 . Electron microscopic examination of antigen uptake by salmonid gill cells after bath immunization with a bacterin . J. Fish Biol. , 31 (Suppl. A) : 209 – 217 .
   Google Scholar
• Zasloff , M. 1992 . Antibiotic peptides as mediators of innate immunity . Curr. Opin. Immunol. , 4 (1) : 3 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwilling , B. S. and Einstein , T. K. 1994 . Macrophage‐Pathogen Interaction , New York : Marcel Dekker .
   Google Scholar