3,501
Views
281
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Human Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater Treatment Processes

, &
Pages 401-427 | Published online: 12 Jan 2007

REFERENCES

  • Ahel , M. , Mikac , N. , Cosovic , B. , Prohic , E. and Soukup , V. 1998 . The impact of contamination from a municipal solid waste landfill (Zagreb, Croatia) on underlying soil . Water Sci. Technol. , 37 : 203 – 210 .
  • Al-Ahmad , A. , Daschner , F. D. and Kummerer , K. 1999 . Biodegradability of cefotiam, ciprofloxacin, meropenem, penicillin G, and sulfamethoxazole and inhibition of waste water bacteria . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 37 : 158 [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Alcock , R. E. , Sweetman , A. and Jones , K. C. 1999 . Assessment of organic contaminant fate in waste water treatment plants I: Selected compounds and physicochemical properties . Chemosphere. , 38 : 2247 – 2262 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Andersen , H. , Siegrist , H. , Halling-Sørensen , B. and Ternes , T. A. 2003 . Fate of estrogens in a municipal sewage treatment plant . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 4021 – 4026 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Andreozzi , R. , Raffaele , M. and Nicklas , P. 2003 . Pharmaceuticals in STP effluents and their solar photodegradation in aquatic environment . Chemosphere. , 50 : 1319 – 1330 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Ayscough , N. J. , Fawell , J. , Franklin , G. and Young , W. 2000 . Review of human pharmaceuticals in the environment (P390) , Bristol, , UK : Environment Agency of England and Wales .
  • Bernard , S. and Gray , N. F. 2000 . Aerobic digestion of pharmaceutical and domestic wastewater sludges at ambient temperature . Water Res. , 34 : 725 – 734 . [CROSSREF]
  • Bester , K. 2003 . Triclosan in a sewage treatment process-balances and monitoring data . Water Res. , 37 : 3891 – 3896 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Bila , D. M. and Dezotti , M. 2003 . Pharmaceutical drugs in the environment . Quim. Nova , 26 : 523 – 530 .
  • Bitton , G. 1994 . Wastewater Microbiology , New York : Wiley-Liss .
  • Bolz , U. , Hagenmaier , H. and Korner , W. 2001 . Phenolic xenoestrogens in surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge from Baden-Wurttemberg, south-west Germany . Environ. Pollut. , 115 : 291 – 301 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Boreen , A. L. , Arnold , W. A. and McNeill , K. 2003 . Photodegradation of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment: A review . Aquat. Sci. , 65 : 320 – 341 .
  • Bound , J. P. and Voulvoulis , N. 2004 . Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment—A comparison of risk assessment strategies . Chemosphere , 56 : 1143 – 1155 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Bowman , J. C. , Zhou , J. L. and Readman , J. W. 2002 . Sediment-water interactions of natural oestrogens under estuarine conditions . Marine Chem. , 77 : 263 – 276 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Boyd , G. R. , Reemtsma , H. , Grimm , D. A. and Mitra , S. 2003 . Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface and treated waters of Louisiana, USA and Ontario, Canada . Sci. Tot. Environ. , 311 : 135 – 149 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Bridgeman , J. 2004 . Public perception towards water recycling in California . Water Environ. J. , 18 : 150 – 154 .
  • Bruchet , A. , Prompsy , C. , Fillppi , G. and Souall , A. 2002 . A broad spectrum analytical scheme for the screening of endocrine disruptors (EDs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewaters and natural waters . Wat. Sci. Technol. , 46 : 97 – 104 .
  • Buser , H. R. , Muller , M. D. and Theobald , N. 1998 . Occurrence of the pharmaceutical drug clofibric acid and the herbicide mecoprop in various Swiss lakes and in the North Sea . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 188 – 192 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Buser , H. R. , Poiger , T. and Muller , M. D. 1998 . Occurrence and fate of the pharmaceutical drug diclofenac in surface waters: Rapid photodegradation in a lake . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 3449 – 3456 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Buser , H. R. , Poiger , T. and Muller , M. D. 1999 . Occurrence and environmental behavior of the chiral pharmaceutical drug ibuprofen in surface waters and in wastewater . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 33 : 2529 – 2535 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Clara , M. , Strenn , B. and Kreuzinger , N. 2004 . Carbamazepine as a possible anthropogenic marker in the aquatic environment: Investigations on the behaviour of Carbamazepine in wastewater treatment and during groundwater infiltration . Water Res. , 38 : 947 – 954 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Cooke , M. D. 1983 . Antibiotic resistance in coliform and faecal coliform bacteria from natural waters and effluents . N. Z. J. Mar. Fresh. Res. , 10 : 717 – 723 .
  • Daughton , C. G. 2002 . Environmental stewardship and drugs as pollutants . Lancet , 360 : 1035 – 1036 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Daughton , C. G. 2003 . Cradle to cradle stewardship of drugs for mininizing their environmental disposition while promoting human health—Part I: Rationale and Avenues toward a green pharmacy . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 757 – 774 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Daughton , C. G. and Ternes , T. A. 1999 . Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: Agents of subtle change? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 107 : 907 – 942 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • de Wit , C. A. 2002 . An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment . Chemosphere , 46 : 583 – 624 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Derksen , J. G.M. , Rijs , G. B.J. and Jongbloed , R. H. 2004 . Diffuse pollution of surface water by pharmaceutical products . Water Sci. Technol. , 49 : 213 – 221 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Doll , T. E. and Frimmel , F. H. 2003 . Fate of pharmaceuticals—Photodegradation by simulated solar UV-light . Chemosphere , 52 : 1757 – 1769 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Dollery , C. 1999 . Theraputic Drugs , Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone .
  • Drewes , J. E. , Heberer , T. and Reddersen , K. 2002 . Fate of pharmaceuticals during indirect potable reuse . Water Sci. Technol. , 46 : 73 – 80 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Duarte-Davidson , R. and Jones , K. C. 1996 . Screening the environmental fate of organic contaminants in sewage sludge applied to agricultural soils: II. The potential for transfers to plants and grazing animals . Sci. Total. Environ. , 185 : 59 – 70 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Eckel , W. P. , Ross , B. and Isensee , R. K. 1993 . Pentobarbitol found in groundwater . Groundwater , 31 : 801 – 804 .
  • Farre , M. l. , Ferrer , I. , Ginebreda , A. , Figueras , M. , Olivella , L. , Tirapu , L. , Vilanova , M. and Barcelo , D. 2001 . Determination of drugs in surface water and wastewater samples by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry: Methods and preliminary results including toxicity studies with Vibrio fischeri . J. Chromatogr. A , 938 : 187 – 197 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Ferrer , I. and Thurman , E. M. 2003 . Liquid chromatography/time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (LC/TOF/MS) for the analysis of emerging contaminants . Trends Anal. Chem. , 22 : 750 – 756 . [CROSSREF]
  • Fisher , P. M.J. and Borland , R. 2003 . Gauging the pharmaceutical burden on Sydney's environment: A preventative response . J. Cleaner. Product. , 11 : 315 – 320 . [CROSSREF]
  • Garrison , A. W. , Pope , J. D. and Allen , F. R. 1976 . “ GC/MS analysis of organic compounds in domestic wastewater ” . In Identification and analysis of organic pollutants in water , Edited by: Keith , L. H. pp. 517 – 566 . Ann Arbor, MI : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Gaterell , M. R. and Lester , J. N. 2000 . Establishing the true costs and benefits of environmental protection and enhancement in the aquatic environment . Sci. Total Environ. , 249 : 25 – 37 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Golet , E. M. , Alder , A. C. and Giger , W. 2002 . Environmental exposure and risk assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents in wastewater and river water of the Glatt Valley Watershed, Switzerland . Environ. Sci. Technol , 36 : 3645 – 3651 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Golet , E. M. , Xifra , I. , Siegrist , H. , Alder , A. C. and Giger , W. 2003 . Environmental exposure assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents from sewage to soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 3243 – 3249 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Gomes , R. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . “ Endocrine disruptors in receiving waters ” . In Endocrine Disrupters in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment , Edited by: Birkett , J. W. and Lester , J. N. pp. 177 – 218 . London : IWA Publishing .
  • Goni-Urriza , M. , Capdepuy , M. , Arpin , C. , Raymond , N. , Caumette , P. and Quentin , C. 2000 . Impact of an urban effluent on antibiotic resistance of riverine Enterobacteriaceae and Aeromonas spp . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 66 : 125 – 132 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Grahame-Smith , D. G. and Aronson , J. K. 2002 . Oxford textbook of clinical pharmacology and drug therapy , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
  • Guerin , T. F. 2001 . Co-composting of pharmaceutical wastes in soil . Lett. Appl. Microbiol. , 33 : 256 – 263 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Halling-Sørensen , B. , Nors-Nielsen , S. N. , Lanzky , P. F. , Ingerslev , F. , Holten Lützhøft , H.-C. and Jørgensen , S. E. 1998 . Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical substances in the environment—A review . Chemosphere , 36 : 357 – 393 . [CROSSREF]
  • Hamer , G. , Egli , T. and Mechsner , K. L. 1985 . “ Biological treatment of industrial wastewater: A microbiological basis for process performance ” . In The society for applied bacteriology symposium series no. 14. Microbial aspects of water management , Edited by: White , W. R. and Passmore , S. M. pp. 127S – 140S . London : Blackwell Scientific .
  • Hanson , R. S. and Brusseau , G. A. 1994 . “ Biodegradation of low-molecular-weight halogenated organic compounds by aerobic bacteria ” . In Biological degradation and bioremediation of toxic chemicals , Edited by: Chaudhry , G. R. pp. 277 – 297 . London : Chapman and Hall .
  • Hartmann , A. , Alder , A. C. , Koller , T. and Widmer , R. M. 1998 . Identification of fluoroquinolone antibiotics as the main source of umuC genotoxicity in native hospital wastewater . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 17 : 377 [CROSSREF]
  • Hartmann , A. , Golet , E. M. , Gartiser , S. , Alder , A. C. , Koller , T. , Widmer , R. M. and Primary , D NA . 1999 . damage but not mutagenicity correlates with ciprofloxacin concentrations in German hospital wastewaters . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 36 : 115 – 119 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Headley , J. V. , Gandrass , J. , Kuballa , J. , Peru , K. M. and Gong , Y. 1998 . Rates of sorption and partitioning of contaminants in river biofilm . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 3968 – 3973 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Heberer , T. 2002 . Occurrence, fate, and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment: A review of recent research data . Toxicol. Lett. , 131 : 5 – 17 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Heberer , T. 2002 . Tracking persistent pharmaceutical residues from municipal sewage to drinking water . J. Hydrol. , 266 : 175 – 189 . [CROSSREF]
  • Heberer , T. , Dunnbier , U. , Reilich , C. and Stan , H. J. 1997 . Detection of drugs and drug metabolites in ground water samples of a drinking water treatment plant . Fre. Environ. Bull. , 6 : 438 – 443 . [CSA]
  • Heberer , T. , Reddersen , K. and Mechlinski , A. 2002 . From municipal sewage to drinking water: Fate and removal of pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment in urban areas . Water Sci. Technol. , 46 : 81 – 88 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Henschel , K. , Wenzel , A. , Diedrich , M. and Fliedner , A. 1997 . Environmental hazard assessment of pharmaceuticals . Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. , 25 : 220 – 225 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Hignite , C. and Azarnoff , D. L. 1977 . Drugs and drug metabolites as environmental contaminants: Chlorophenoxyisobutyrate and salicylic acid in sewage water effluent . Life Sci. , 20 : 337 – 341 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Hilton , M. J. and Thomas , K. V. 2003 . Determination of selected human pharmaceutical compounds in effluent and surface water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry . J. Chromatogr. A , 1015 : 129 – 141 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Hirsch , R. , Ternes , T. , Haberer , K. and Kratz , K. L. 1999 . Occurrence of antibiotics in the aquatic environment . Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 109 – 118 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Holm , J. V. , Rugge , K. , Bjerg , P. L. and Christensen , T. H. 1995 . Occurrence and distribution of pharmaceutical compounds in the groundwater downgradient of a landfill (Grinstead, Denmark) . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 29 : 1415 – 1420 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Horan , N. J. 1997 . Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems: Theory and Operation , Chichester, , UK : John Wiley and Sons .
  • Hua , J. , An , P. , Winter , J. and Gallert , C. 2003 . Elimination of COD, microorganisms and pharmaceuticals from sewage by trickling through sandy soil below leaking sewers . Water Res. , 37 : 4395 – 4404 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Jobling , S. , Nolan , M. , Tyler , C. R. , Brighty , G. and Sumpter , J. P. 1998 . Widespread sexual disruption in wild fish . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 2498 [CSA]
  • Jones , O. A.H. , Voulvoulis , N. and Lester , J. N. 2003 . Analytical method development for the simultaneous determination of five human pharmaceuticals in water and wastewater samples by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry . Chromatographia , 58 : 471 – 477 .
  • Jones , O. A.H. , Voulvoulis , N. and Lester , J. N. 2003 . Potential impact of pharmaceuticals on environmental health . Bull. WHO , 81 : 768 – 769 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Jones , O. A.H. , Voulvoulis , N. and Lester , J. N. 2001 . Human pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment: A review . Environ. Technol. , 22 : 1383 – 1394 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Jones , O. A.H. , Voulvoulis , N. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . Aquatic environmental assessment of the top 25 English prescription pharmaceuticals . Water Res. , 36 : 5013 – 5022 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Jorgensen , S. E. and Halling-Sørensen , B. 2000 . Drugs in the environment . Chemosphere , 40 : 691 – 699 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Jux , U. , Baginski , R. M. , Arnold , H.-G. , Kronke , M. and Seng , P. N. 2002 . Detection of pharmaceutical contaminations of river, pond, and tap water from Cologne (Germany) and surroundings . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 205 : 393 – 398 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Kalsch , W. 1999 . Biodegradation of the iodinated X-ray contrast media diatrizoate and iopromide . Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 143 – 153 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Kanda , R. , Griffin , P. , James , H. A. and Fothergill , J. 2003 . Pharmaceutical and personal care products in sewage treatment works . J. Environ. Monit. , 5 : 823 – 830 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Khan , S. J. and Ongerth , J. E. 2002 . Estimation of pharmaceutical residues in primary and secondary sewage sludge based on quantities of use and fugacity modelling . Water. Sci. Technol. , 46 : 105 – 113 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Khan , S. J. and Ongerth , J. E. 2004 . Modelling of pharmaceutical residues in Australian sewage by quantities of use and fugacity calculations . Chemosphere , 54 : 355 – 367 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Kolpin , D. W. , Furlong , E. T. , Meyer , M. , Thurman , E. M. , Zaugg , S. D. , Barber , L. B. and Buxton , H. T. 2002 . Pharmaceuticals, hormones and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams, 1999–2000: A national reconnaissance . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 36 : 1202 – 1211 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Koutsouba , V. , Heberer , T. , Fuhrmann , B. , Schmidt-Baumler , K. , Tsipi , D. and Hiskia , A. 2003 . Determination of polar pharmaceuticals in sewage water of Greece by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry . Chemosphere , 51 : 69 – 75 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Kreuzinger , N. , Clara , M. , Strenn , B. and Vogel , B. 2004 . Investigation on the behaviour of selected pharmaceuticals in the groundwater after infiltration of treted wastewater . Water Sci. Technol. , 50 : 221 – 228 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Krogmann , U. , Boyles , L. S. , Bamka , W. J. , Chaiprapat , S. and Martel , C. J. 1999 . Biosolids and sludge management . Water Environ. Res. , 71 : 692 – 695 .
  • Kümmerer , K. 2001 . Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks , Berlin : Springer-Verlag .
  • Kümmerer , K. and Al-Ahmad , A. 1997 . Biodegradability of the anti-tumour agents 5-fluorouracil, cytarabine, and gemcitabine: Impact of the chemical structure and synergistic toxicity with hospital effluent . Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. , 25 : 166 – 172 .
  • Kümmerer , K. , Al-Ahmad , A. and Mersch-Sundermann , V. 2000 . Biodegradability of some antibiotics, elimination of the genotoxicity and affection of wastewater bacteria in a simple test . Chemosphere , 40 : 701 – 710 . [CROSSREF]
  • Kümmerer , K. , Steger-Hartmann , T. and Meyer , M. 1997 . Biodegradability of the anti-tumour agent ifosfamide and its occurrence in hospital effluents and communal sewage . Water Res. , 31 : 2705 – 2710 . [CROSSREF]
  • Lai , K. M. , Johnson , K. L. , Scrimshaw , M. D. and Lester , J. N. 2000 . Binding of waterborne steroid estrogens to solid phases in river and estuarine systems . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 34 : 3890 – 3894 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Lai , K. M. , Scrimshaw , M. D. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . Biotransformation and bioconcentration of steroid estrogens by Chlorella vulgaris . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 68 : 859 – 864 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Lai , K. M. , Scrimshaw , M. D. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . The effects of natural and synthetic steroid estrogens in relation to their environmental occurrence . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 32 : 113 – 132 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CSA]
  • Lai , K. M. , Scrimshaw , M. D. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . Prediction of the bioaccumulation factors and body burden of natural and synthetic estrogens in aquatic organisms in the river systems . Sci. Total Environ. , 289 : 159 – 168 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Langford , K. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . “ Fate and behaviour of endocrine disruptors in wastewater treatment processes ” . In Endocrine Disrupters in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment , Edited by: Birkett , J. W. and Lester , J. N. pp. 103 – 144 . London : IWA Publishing .
  • Latch , D. E. , Stender , B. L. , Packer , J. L. , Arnold , W. A. and McNeill , K. 2003 . Photochemical fate of pharmaceuticals in the wnvironment: Cimetidine and ranitidine . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 3342 – 3350 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Lee , H.-B. , Sarafin , K. , Peart , T. E. and Svoboda , M. L. 2003 . Acidic pharmaceuticals in sewage—Methodology, stability test, occurrence, and removal from Ontario samples . Water Qual. Res. J. Can. , 38 : 667 – 682 . [CSA]
  • Lester , J. N. and Birkett , J. W. 1999 . Microbiology and Chemistry for Environmental Scientists and Engineers , London : E and FN Spon .
  • Lin , J. , Biyela , P. T. and Puckree , T. 2004 . Antibiotic resistance profiles of environmental isolates from Mhlathuze river, KwaZulu-Natal (RSA) . Water SA , 30 : 23 – 28 . [CSA]
  • Lindsey , M. E. , Meyer , M. and Thurman , E. M. 2001 . Analysis of trace levels of Sulfonamide and Tetracycline antimicrobials in groundwater and surface water using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry . Anal. Chem. , 73 : 4640 – 4646 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Lindstrom , A. , Buerge , I. J. , Poiger , T. , Bergqvist , P.-A. , Muller , M. D. and Buser , H. R. 2002 . Occurrence and environmental behavior of the bactericide triclosan and its methyl derivative in surface waters and in wastewater . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 36 : 2322 – 2329 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Meakins , N. C. , Bubb , J. M. and Lester , J. N. 1994 . The fate and behaviour of organic micropollutants during wastewater treatment processes: A review . Int. J. Environ. Pollut. , 4 : 27 – 58 .
  • Merck . 2001 . The Merck Index. , London : Merck Publications .
  • Metcalfe , C. D. , Koenig , B. G. , Bennie , D. T. , Servos , M. , Ternes , T. A. and Hirsch , R. 2003 . Occurrence of neutral and acidic drugs in the effluents of Canadian sewage treatment plants . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 22 : 2872 – 2880 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Ollers , S. , Singer , H. P. , Fassler , P. and Muller , S. R. 2001 . Simultaneous quantification of neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals and pesticides at the low-ng/L level in surface and waste water . J. Chromatogr. A. , 911 : 225 – 234 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Peck , M. , Gibson , R. W. , Kortenkamp , A. and Hilla , E. M. 2004 . Sediments are major sinks of steroidal estrogens in two United Kingdom rivers . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 23 : 945 – 952 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Petrovic , M. , Gonzalez , S. and Barcelo , D. 2003 . Analysis and removal of emerging contaminants in wastewater and drinking water . Trends Anal. Chem. , 22 : 685 – 696 . [CROSSREF]
  • Poiger , T. , Buser , H. R. and Muller , M. D. 2001 . Photodegradation of the pharmaceutical drug diclofenac in a lake: Pathway, field measurements, and mathematical modeling . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 20 : 256 – 263 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Rang , H. P. , Dale , M. and Ritter , J. M. 1999 . Pharmacology , St. Louis, MO : Churchill Livingstone .
  • Reddersen , K. , Heberer , T. and Dunnbier , U. 2002 . Identification and significance of phenazone drugs and their metabolites in ground- and drinking water . Chemosphere. , 49 : 539 – 544 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Reinthaler , F. F. , Posch , J. , Feierl , G. , Wust , G. , Haas , D. , Ruckenbauer , G. , Mascher , F. and Marth , E. 2003 . Antibiotic resistance of E. coli in sewage and sludge . Water Res. , 37 : 1685 – 1690 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Rogers , H. R. 1996 . Sources, behaviour and fate of organic contaminants during sewage treatment and in sewage sludges . Sci. Total Environ , 185 : 3 – 26 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Rossin , A. C. , Perry , R. and Lester , J. N. 1982 . The removal of nitrilotriacetic acid and its effect on metal removal during biological sewage treatment: Part 1—Adsorption and acclimatisation . Environ. Pollut. Ser. A. , 29 : 271 – 302 . [CROSSREF]
  • Sacher , F. , Lange , F. T. , Brauch , H. J. and Blankenhorn , I. 2001 . Pharmaceuticals in groundwaters . Analytical methods and results of a monitoring program in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. J. Chromatogr. A. , 938 : 199 – 210 .
  • Schwartz , T. , Kohnen , W. , Jansen , B. and Obst , U. 2002 . Detection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their resistance genes in wastewater, surface water, and drinking water biofilms . FEMS Micro. Ecol. , 1470 : 1 – 11 .
  • Schwarzenbach , R. P. , Gschwend , P. M. and Imboden , D. M. 2003 . Environmental Organic Chemistry , Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons .
  • Scrimshaw , M. D. and Lester , J. N. 2002 . “ Fate and behaviour of endocrine disruptors in sludge treatment and disposal ” . In Endocrine Disrupters in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment , Edited by: Birkett , J. W. and Lester , J. N. pp. 145 – 176 . London : IWA Publishing .
  • Sedlak , D. L. , Pinkston , K. E. , Gray , J. L. and Kolodziej , E. P. 2003 . Approaches for quantifying the attenuation of wastewater-derived contaminants in the aquatic environment . Chimia. , 57 : 567 – 569 .
  • Seiler , R. L. , Zaugg , S. D. , Thomas , J. M. and Howcroft , D. L. 1999 . Caffeine and pharmaceuticals as indicators of waste water contamination in wells . Ground Water , 37 : 405 [CSA]
  • Singer , H. P. , Muller , S. , Tixier , C. and Pillonel , L. 2002 . Triclosan: Occurrence and fate of a widely used biocide in the aquatic environment: Field measurements in wastewater treatment plants, surface waters, and lake sediments . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 36 : 4998 – 5004 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Soulet , B. , Tauxe , A. and Tarradellas , J. 2002 . Analysis of acidic drugs in Swiss wastewaters . Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. , 82 : 659 – 667 . [CROSSREF]
  • Steger-Hartmann , T. , Lange , R. , Schweinfurth , H. , Tschampel , M. and Rehmann , I. 2002 . Investigations into the environmental fate and effects of iopromide (ultravist), a widely used iodinated X-ray contrast medium . Water Res. , 36 : 266 – 274 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • StegerHartmann , T. K.K.H.A. 1997 . Biological degradation of cyclophosphamide and its occurrence in sewage water . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 36 : 174 [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Stoveland , S. and Lester , J. N. 1980 . A study of the factors which influence metal removal in the activated sludge process . Sci. Total Environ. , 16 : 37 – 54 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Stuer-Lauridsen , F. , Birkved , M. , Hansen , L. P. , Lützhoft , H. C.H. and Halling-Sørensen , B. 2000 . Environmental risk assessment of human pharmaceuticals in Denmark after normal therapeutic use . Chemosphere , 40 : 783 – 793 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Stumpf , M. , Ternes , T. A. , Wilken , R. D. , Rodrigues , S. V. and Baumann , W. 1999 . Polar drug residues in sewage and natural waters in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil . Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 135 – 141 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Ternes , T. 2000 . Pharmaceuticals and metabolites as contaminants of the aquatic environment: An overview . Abstr. Pap. Am. Chem. Soc. , 219 30-ENVR
  • Ternes , T. A. 1998 . Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers . Water Res. , 32 : 3245 – 3257 . [CROSSREF]
  • Ternes , T. A. 2001 . Analytical methods for the determination of pharmaceuticals in aqueous environmental samples . Trends Anal. Chem. , 20 : 419 – 434 .
  • Ternes , T. A. , Herrmann , N. , Bonerz , M. , Knacker , T. , Siegrist , H. and Joss , A. A rapid method to measure the solid-water distribution coefficient (Kd) for pharmaceuticals and musk fragrances in sewage sludge . Water Res. , 38 4075 – 4084 .
  • Ternes , T. A. and Hirsch , R. 2000 . Occurrence and behavior of X-ray contrast media in sewage facilities and the aquatic environment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 34 : 2741 [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Ternes , T. A. , Kreckel , P. and Mueller , J. 1999 . Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants—II . Aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge. Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 91 – 99 . [CSA]
  • Ternes , T. A. , Meisenheimer , M. , McDowell , D. , Sacher , F. , Brauch , H.-J. , Haist-Gulde , B. , Preuss , G. , Wilme , U. and Zulei-Seibert , N. 2002 . Removal of pharmaceuticals during drinking water treatment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 36 : 3855 – 3863 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Ternes , T. A. , Stuber , J. , Herrmann , N. , McDowell , D. , Ried , A. , Kampmann , M. and Teiser , B. 2003 . Ozonation: A tool for removal of pharmaceuticals, contrast media and musk fragrances from wastewater . Water Res. , 37 : 1976 – 1982 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Ternes , T. A. , Stumpf , M. , Mueller , J. , Haberer , K. , Wilken , R. D. and Servos , M. 1999 . Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants—I . Investigations in Germany, Canada and Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. , 225 : 81 – 90 . [CROSSREF]
  • Thoma , K. , Kubler , N. and Reimann , E. 1997 . Photodegradation of antimycotic drugs .3. Communication: Photodegradation of topical antimycotics . Pharmazie , 52 : 362 [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE]
  • Tixier , C. , Singer , H. P. , Oellers , S. and Muller , S. R. 2003 . Occurance and fate of Carbamazepine, Clofibric acid, Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Ketoprofen and Naproxen in surface waters . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 1061 – 1068 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Tolls , J. 2000 . Sorption of veterinary pharmaceuticals in soils: A review . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 35 : 3397 – 3412 . [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Velagaleti , R. 1997 . Behaviour of pharmaceutical drugs (human and animal health) in the environment . Drug Inform. J. , 31 : 715 – 722 .
  • Velagaleti , R. and Gill , M. 2001 . “ Degradation and depletion of pharmaceuticals in the environment ” . In Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment: Scientific and Regulatory Issues , Edited by: Daughton , C. G. and Jones-Lepp , T. L. pp. 333 – 347 . Washington, D.C., , USA : American Chemical Society .
  • Williams , R. J. , Johnson , A. C. , Smith , J. J.L. and Kanda , R. 2003 . Steroid estrogens profiles along river stretches arising from sewage treatment works discharges . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 1744 – 1750 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Zuccato , E. , Calamari , D. , Natangelo , M. and Fanelli , R. 2000 . Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment . Lancet , 355 : 1789 – 1790 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF]
  • Zwiener , C. and Frimmel , F. H. 2003 . Short-term tests with a pilot sewage plant and biofilm reactors for the biological degradation of the pharmaceutical compounds clofibric acid, ibuprofen, and diclofenac . Sci. Total Environ. , 309 : 201 – 211 . [PUBMED] [INFOTRIEVE] [CROSSREF] [CSA]
  • Zwiener , C. , Glauner , T. and Frimmel , F. H. 2000 . Biodegradation of pharmaceutical residues investigated by SPE- GC/ITD-MS and on-line derivatization . J. High Resolut. Chromatogr. , 23 : 474 – 478 . [CROSSREF]

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.