183
Views
157
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Halamine water disinfectants

, &
Pages 133-175 | Published online: 09 Jan 2009

References

  • Hoff , J. C. and Geldreich , E. E. 1981 . Comparison of the biocidal efficiency of alternative disinfectants . J. Am. Waterworks Assoc. , 73 : 40
  • Akin , E. W. , Hoff , J. C. and Lippy , E. C. 1982 . Waterborne outbreak control: which disinfectant? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 46 : 7
  • Wolfe , R. L. , Ward , N. R. and Olson , B. H. 1984 . Inorganic chloramines as drinking water disinfectants: a review . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 76 : 74
  • Blaser , M. J. , Smith , P. F. , Wang , W. L. and Hoff , J. C. 1986 . Inactivation of Campylobacter jejuni by chlorine and monochloramine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 51 : 307
  • Foegeding , P. M. 1983 . Bacterial spore resistance to chlorine compounds . Food Tech. , 37 : 100
  • Berman , D. and Hoff , J. C. 1984 . Inactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 48 : 317
  • Vogt , C. and Regli , S. 1981 . Controlling trihalomethanes while attaining disinfection . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 73 : 33
  • Shull , K. E. 1981 . Experience with chloramines as primary disinfectants . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 73 : 101
  • Brodtmann , N. V. and Russo , P. J. 1979 . The use of chloramine for reduction of trihalomethanes and disinfection of drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 71 : 40
  • Bellar , T. A. , Lichtenberg , J. J. and Kroner , R. C. 1974 . The occurrence of organohalides in chlorinated drinking waters . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 66 : 703
  • Bull , R. J. 1980 . Health effects of alternate disinfectants and their reaction products . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 72 : 299
  • Norman , T. S. , Harms , L. L. and Looyenga , R. W. 1980 . The use of chloramines to prevent trihalomethane formation . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 72 : 176
  • Cotruvo , J. A. 1982 . Evaluating the benefits and potential risks of .disinfectants in drinking water treatment . Environ. Health Perspect. , 46 : 1
  • Kreft , P. , Umphres , M. , Hand , J. M. , Tate , C. and McGuire , M. J. 1985 . Converting from chlorine to chloramines; a case study . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 77 : 38
  • Williams , R. F. , Moore , B. E. , Longley , K. E. and Sorber , C. A. 1981 . “ Reduction of trihalomethane production with optimal disinfection through alternative disinfection systems ” . In Chemistry in Water Reuse , Edited by: Cooper , W. J. Vol. 1 , 477 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Smallowitz , H. 1986 . Chloramines: a better way . Civ. Eng. (ASCE) , 56 : 50
  • Brodtmann , N. V. and Koffskey , W. E. 1980 . “ Studies of the use of combined chlorine (monochloramine) as a primary disinfectant of drinking water ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 3 , 777 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Lin , S. and Carlson , R. M. 1984 . Susceptibility of environmentally important heterocycles to chemical disinfection: reactions with aqueous chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 18 : 743
  • Sontheimer , H. 1979 . “ Development, problems, aims, and significance of the oxidation process in the treatment of drinking water ” . In Oxidation Techniques in Drinking Water Treatment , Office of Drinking Water Research, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . EPA‐570/9–79–020, CCMS‐111,
  • Garfield , E. 1985 . Water chlorination. I. Water, water almost everywhere but is it fit to drink? . Curr. Contents , 37 : 3
  • Kross , R. D. 1984 . “ An innovative demand‐release microbiocide ” . In Progress in Chemical Disinfection , Edited by: Janauer , G. E. Vol. 2 , 1 Binghamton : State University of New York .
  • Olivieri , V. P. , Snead , M. C. , Kruse , C. W. and Kawata , K. 1986 . Stability and effectiveness of chlorine disinfectants in water distribution systems . Environ. Health Perspect. , 69 : 15
  • Bercz , J. P. , Jones , L. , Garner , L. , Murray , D. and Ludwig , D. A. 1982 . Subchronic toxicity of chlorine dioxide and related compounds in drinking water in the nonhuman primate . Environ. Health Perspect. , 46 : 47
  • Wang , L. K. and Peery , G. G. 1975 . Disinfection with quaternary ammonium compounds . Water Res. Bull. , 11 : 919
  • Means , E. G. , Tanaka , T. S. , Otsuka , D. J. and McGuire , M. J. 1986 . Effects of chlorine and ammonia application points on bactericidal efficiency . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 78 : 62
  • Dice , J. C. 1985 . Denver's seven decades of experience with chloramination . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 77 : 34
  • Hack , D. J. 1985 . State regulation of chloramination . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 77 : 46
  • Barrett , S. E. , Davis , M. K. and McGuire , M. J. 1985 . Blending chloraminated and chlorinated waters . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 77 : 50
  • Evans , O. M. 1982 . Voltammetric determination of the decomposition rates of combined chlorine in aqueous solution . Anal. Chem. , 54 : 1579
  • Snyder , M. P. and Margerum , D. W. 1982 . Kinetics of chlorine transfer from chloramine to amines, amino acids, and peptides . Inorg. Chem. , 21 : 2545
  • Isaac , R. A. and Morris , J. C. 1983 . “ Modeling of reactions between aqueous chlorine and nitrogenous compounds ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 4 , 63 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Wolfe , R. L. and Olson , B. H. 1985 . Disinfection activity of inorganic chloramines in the presence of nitrogenous organic compounds . Proc. Am. Water Works Assoc. Water Qual. Tech. Conf. 1985 . Vol. 13 , pp. 383
  • Scully , F. E. , Burns , K. , Speed , M. A. and Arber , R. P. 1984 . Analyses of organic N‐chloramines in municipal drinking water supply . Proc. Am. Waterworks Assoc. WaterQual. Tech. Conf. 1984 . Vol. 11 , pp. 197
  • Jacangelo , J. F. and Olivieri , V. P. 1985 . “ Aspects of the mode of action of monochloramine ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 575 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Quails , R. G. and Johnson , J. D. 1985 . “ A kinetic model of chlorination of natural water: the roles of organic nitrogen and humic substances ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 723 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • LeCloirec , C. and Martin , G. 1985 . “ Evolution of amino acids in water treatment plants and the effect of chlorination on amino acids ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 821 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Jensen , J. N. , St. Aubin , J. J. , Christman , R. F. and Johnson , J. D. 1985 . “ Characterization of the reaction between monochloramine and isolated aquatic fulvic acid ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 939 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Valentine , R. L. 1985 . “ Disappearance of monochloramine in the presence of nitrite ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 975 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Holzworth , G. , Balmer , R. G. and Soni , L. 1984 . The fate of chlorine and chloramines in cooling towers . Water Res. , 18 : 1421
  • Cristina , S. P. , Azure , M. T. , Workman , H. J. and Gray , E. T. 1985 . “ Decomposition of bromamines in aqueous solution: preliminary report of the decomposition kinetics and disproportionation of NH2Br ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 763 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Johnson , J. D. and Overby , R. 1971 . Bromine and bromamine disinfection chemistry . J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. , 97 : 617
  • Wajon , J. E. and Morris , J. C. 1982 . Rates of formation of N‐bromo amines in aqueous solution . Inorg. Chem. , 21 : 4258
  • Inman , G. W. and Johnson , J. D. 1984 . Kinetics of monobromamine‐dibromamine formation in aqueous ammonia solutions . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 18 : 219
  • Isaac , R. A. , Wajon , J. E. and Morris , J. C. 1985 . “ Subbreakpoint modeling of the HOBr‐NH3‐Org‐N reactions ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 985 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Nelson , G. D. 1979 . “ Chloramines and bromamines ” . In Kirk — Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , 3rd ed. , Vol. 5 , 565 New York : Wiley Interscience .
  • Gump , W. 1979 . “ Disinfectants and antiseptics ” . In Kirk — Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , 3rd ed. , Vol. 7 , 793 New York : Wiley Interscience .
  • Dychdala , G. R. 1983 . “ Chlorine and chlorine compounds ” . In Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation, , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Block , S. S. 157 Philadelphia, Pa. : Lea & Febiger .
  • Trotz , S. I. and Pitts , J. J. 1981 . “ Industrial antimicrobial agents ” . In Kirk — Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , 3rd ed. , Vol. 13 , 223 New York : Wiley Interscience .
  • Wojtowicz , J. A. , Faust , J. P. and Brigano , F. A. 1984 . “ Treatment of swimming pools, spas, and hot tubs ” . In Kirk — Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology , 3rd ed. , Vol. 24 , 427 New York : Wiley Interscience .
  • Ortenzio , L. F. and Stuart , L. S. 1964 . A standard test for efficacy of germicides and acceptability of residual disinfecting activity in swimming pool water . J. Assoc. Off. Agrie. Chem. , 47 : 540
  • Soracco , R. J. , Wilde , E. W. , Mayack , L. A. and Pope , D. H. 1985 . Comparative effectiveness of antifouling treatment regimes using chlorine or a slow‐releasing bromine biocide . Water Res. , 19 : 763
  • Worley , S. D. , Swango , L. J. , Aull , J. L. , Kohl , H. H. , Williams , D. E. , Barnela , S. B. , Barnela , U. , Killen , A. and Kong , L. 1985 . New disinfection agents for water , Report Contract DAMD17–82‐C‐2257 U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command and U.S. Air Force Engineering and Services Laboratory .
  • Gowda , N. M. M. , Trieff , N. M. and Stanton , G. J. 1981 . Inactivation of poliovirus by chloramine‐T . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 42 : 469
  • Peterson , L. O. 1970 . N‐Brominated‐N‐Chlorinated Sulfonamides . U.S. 3507917,
  • Kaminski , J. J. , Bodor , N. and Higuchi , T. 1976 . N‐Halo derivatives III: stabilization of nitrogen‐chlorine bond in N‐chloroamino acid derivatives . J. Pharm. Sci. , 65 : 553
  • Kaminski , J. J. , Bodor , N. and Higuchi , T. 1976 . N‐Halo derivatives IV: synthesis of low chlorine potential soft N‐chloramine systems . J. Pharm. Sci. , 65 : 1733
  • Kaminski , J. J. , Huycke , M. M. , Selk , S. H. , Bodor , N. and Higuchi , T. 1976 . N‐Halo derivatives V: comparative antimicrobial activity of soft N‐chloramine systems . J. Pharm. Sei. , 65 : 1737
  • Bodor , N. , Kaminski , J. J. , Worley , S. D. , Colton , R. J. , Lee , T. H. and Rabalais , J. W. 1974 . Photoelectron spectra, hydrolytic stability, and antimicrobial activity of N‐chlorinated piperidines . J. Pharm. Sci. , 63 : 1387
  • Llabres , C. M. and Ahearn , D. G. 1985 . Antimicrobial activities of N‐chloramines and diazolidinyl urea . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 49 : 370
  • Selk , S. H. , Pogany , S. A. and Higuchi , T. 1982 . Comparative antimicrobial activity, in vitro and in vivo, of soft N‐chloramine systems and chlorhexidine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 43 : 899
  • Gerson , S. H. , Worley , S. D. , Bodor , N. and Kaminski , J. J. 1978 . Electronic structures of some antimicrobial N‐chloramines. Possible existence of intramolecular hydrogen bonding and its effect on germicidal efficiency . J. Med. Chem. , 21 : 686
  • Ward , N. R. , Wolfe , R. L. and Olson , B. H. 1984 . Effect of pH, application technique, and chlorine‐to‐nitrogen ratio on disinfectant activity of inorganic chloramines with pure culture bacteria . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 48 : 508
  • Wolfe , R. L. , Ward , N. R. and Olson , B. H. 1985 . Inactivation of heterotrophic bacterial populations in finished drinking water by chlorine and chloramines . Water Res. , 19 : 1393
  • Butterfield , C. T. and Wattie , E. 1946 . Influence of pH and temperature on the survival of coliforms and enteric pathogens when exposed to chloramines . Public Health Rep. , 61 : 157
  • National Research Council . 1980 . Drinking Water and Health , Vol. 2 , Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press . chap. 2.
  • Kelly , S. M. and Sanderson , W. W. 1958 . The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses . Am. J. Public Health , 48 : 1323
  • Butterfield , C. T. , Wattie , E. , Megregian , S. and Chambers , C. W. 1943 . Influence of pH and temperature on the survival of coliforms and enteric pathogens when exposed to free chlorine . Public Health Rep. , 51 : 1837
  • Chang , S. L. 1944 . Destruction of micro‐organisms . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 36 : 1192
  • Butterfield , C. T. 1948 . Bactericidal properties of chloramines and free chlorine in water . Public Health Rep. , 63 : 934
  • Wolfe , R. L. , Ward , N. R. and Olson , B. H. 1985 . Interference in the bactericidal properties of inorganic chloramines by organic nitrogen compounds . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 19 : 1192
  • Ditzel , R. G. , Arvan , P. G. and Symes , W. F. 1956 . ACL‐85, new active ingredient for bleaching and sanitizing agents . Soap Chem. Spec. , 32 : 125
  • Stuart , L. S. and Ortenzio , L. F. 1964 . Swimming pool chlorine stabilizers . Soap Chem. Spec , 40 : 79
  • Petrie , E. M. and Roman , D. P. 1958 . Chlorine sanitizing compounds . Soap Chem. Spec. , 34 : 67
  • Kowalski , X. and Hilton , T. B. 1966 . Comparison of chlorinated cyanurates with other chlorine disinfectants . Public Health Rep. , 81 : 282
  • Johns , C. K. 1951 . The germicidal effectiveness of a new chlorine compound . J. Milk Food Technol. , 14 : 134
  • Worley , S. D. , Wheatley , W. B. , Kohl , H. H. , Burkett , H. D. , Van Hoose , J. A. and Bodor , N. 1983 . A new water disinfectant; a comparative study . Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. , 22 : 716
  • Bacon , L. R. , Sotier , A. L. and Roth , A. A. 1953 . Field experience with Antibac, a new type of chlorine sanitizer . J. Milk Food Technol. , 16 : 61
  • Wood , C. B. 1928 . Succinchlorimide for the treatment of small quantities of potable water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 20 : 535
  • Reddish , G. F. and Pauley , A. W. 1945 . Succinchlorimide as a water decontaminant . Bull. Natl. Formul. Comm. , 13 : 11
  • Geiger , K. H. and Moloney , P. J. 1952 . Enhanced effectiveness of chlorination . Can. J. Public Health , 43 : 359
  • Weber , G. R. 1950 . Effect of concentration and reaction (pH) on the germicidal activity of Chloramine‐T . Public Health Rep. , 65 : 503
  • Kelly , S. M. and Sanderson , W. W. 1960 . The effect of chlorine in water on enteric viruses, n. The effect of combined chlorine on poliomyelitis and coxsackieviruses . Am. J. Public Health , 50 : 14
  • Olivieri , V. P. , Dennis , W. H. , Snead , M. C. , Ritchfield , D. J. and Kruse , C. W. 1980 . “ Reaction of chlorine and chloramines with nucleic acids under disinfection conditions ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 3 , 651 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Stringer , R. and Kruse , C. W. Amoebic cysticidal properties of halogens in water . Proceedings of the National Specialty Conference on Disinfection . New York : American Society of Civil Engineers .
  • Haas , C. N. , Khates , K. M. and Wojtas , A. T. 1985 . “ Sensitivity of vegetative protozoa to free and combined chlorine ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 667 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Scarpino , P. V. , Lucas , M. , Dahliing , O. R. , Berg , A. and Chang , S. L. 1974 . “ Effectiveness of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion in destruction of viruses and bacteria ” . In Chemistry of Water Supply, Treatment and Distribution , Edited by: Rubin , A. J. 359 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Engelbrecht , R. S. , Weber , M. J. , Salter , B. L. and Schmidt , C. A. 1980 . Comparative inactivation of viruses by chlorine . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 40 : 249
  • Weidenkopf , S. J. 1958 . Inactivation of Type I poliomyelitis virus with chlorine . Virology , 5 : 56
  • Stringer , R. P. , Cramer , W. N. and Kruse , C. W. 1975 . “ Comparison of bromine, chlorine, and iodine as disinfectants for amoebic cysts ” . In Disinfection: Water and Wastewater , Edited by: Johnson , J. D. 193 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Jarroll , E. L. , Bingham , A. K. and Meyer , E. A. 1981 . Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cyst viability . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 41 : 483
  • Johannesson , J. K. 1958 . Anomalous bactericidal action of bromine . Nature , 181 : 1799
  • Wyss , O. and Stockton , J. R. 1947 . The germicidal action of bromine . Arch. Biochem. , 12 : 267
  • Floyd , R. , Sharp , D. G. and Johnson , J. D. 1978 . Inactivation of single poliovirus particles in water by hypobromite ion, molecular bromine, dibromamine, and tribromamine . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 12 : 1031
  • Kruse , C. W. , Hsu , Y. , Griffiths , A. C. and Stringer , R. Halogen action on bacteria, viruses, and protozoa . Proceedings of the National Specialty Conference on Disinfection . pp. 113 New York : American Society of Civil Engineers .
  • Floyd , R. , Johnson , J. D. and Sharp , D. G. 1976 . Inactivation by bromine of single polioviruses in water . Appl. Environ. Microbiol , 31 : 298
  • Kosugi , M. , Kaminski , J. J. , Selk , S. H. , Pitman , I. H. , Bodor , N. and Higuchi , T. 1976 . N‐Haloderivatives VI: microbiological and chemical evaluations of 3‐chloro‐2‐oxazolidinones . J. Pharm. Sci. , 65 : 1743
  • Mills , J. F. and McAnallen , C. K. 1969 . 2‐Oxazolidinones as Stabilizers for Aqueous Chlorine Solutions . U.S. 3452137,
  • Kaminski , J. J. and Bodor , N. S. 1976 . Method of Inhibiting Bacterial Growth With Certain Selected 3‐Chloro‐2‐Oxazolidinones . U.S. 4000293,
  • Bodor , N. S. and Kaminski , J. J. 1977 . Brominating and Oxidizing Agent and Method of Using Same . U.S. 4009178,
  • Kaminski , J. J. and Bodor , N. 1976 . 3‐Bromo‐4,4‐dimethyl‐2‐oxazolidinone. Preparation and investigation of a new brominating agent . Tetrahedron , 32 : 1097
  • Kaminski , J. J. and Bodor , N. 1979 . Determination of penicillins and cephalosporins using 3‐bromo‐4,4‐dimethyl‐2‐oxazolidinone . Int. J. Pharm. , 3 : 151
  • Burkett , H. D. , Faison , J. H. , Kohl , H. H. , Wheatley , W. B. , Worley , S. D. and Bodor , N. 1981 . A novel chloramine compound for water disinfection . Water Res. Bull. , 17 : 874
  • Worley , S. D. , Wheatley , W. B. , Kohl , H. H. , Burkett , H. D. , Faison , J. H. , Van Hoose , J. A. and Bodor , N. 1983 . “ A novel bactericidal agent for treatment of water ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 4 , 1105 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Worley , S. D. , Wheatley , W. B. , Kohl , H. H. , Van Hoose , J. A. , Burkett , H. D. and Bodor , N. 1983 . The stability in water of a new chloramine disinfectant . Water Res. Bull , 19 : 97
  • Mora , E. C. , Kohl , H. H. , Wheatley , W. B. , Worley , S. D. , Faison , J. H. , Burkett , H. D. and Bodor , N. 1982 . Properties of a new chloramine disinfectant and detoxicant . Poult. Sei. , 61 : 1968
  • Worley , S. D. and Burkett , H. D. 1984 . The stability in water of a new chloramine disinfectant as a function of pH, temperature, and water quality . Water Res. Bull , 20 : 365
  • Worley , S. D. , Burkett , H. D. and Price , J. F. 1984 . The tendency of a new water disinfectant to produce toxic trihalomethanes . Water Res. Bull. , 20 : 369
  • Worley , S. D. , Williams , D. E. , Burkett , H. D. , Swango , L. J. , Hendrix , C. M. and Attleberger , M. H. 1984 . “ Comparisons of a new N‐chloramine compound with free chlorine as disinfectants for water ” . In Progress in Chemical Disinfection , Edited by: Janauer , G. E. Vol. 2 , 45 Binghamton : State University of New York .
  • Williams , D. E. , Worley , S. D. , Wheatley , W. B. and Swango , L. J. 1985 . Bactericidal properties of a new water disinfectant . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 49 : 637
  • Worley , S. D. , Williams , D. E. , Burkett , H. D. , Barnela , S. B. and Swango , L. J. 1985 . “ Potential new water disinfectants ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 5 , 1269 Chelsea, Mich. : Lewis .
  • Worley , S. D. , Swango , L. J. , Attleberger , M. H. , Hendrix , C. M. , Kohl , H. H. , Wheatley , W. B. , Williams , D. E. , Burkett , H. D. , Geiger , D. and Clark , T. October 1984 . New Disinfection Agents for Water , Report Contract DAMD 17–82‐C‐2257 October , U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command and U.S. Air Force Engineering and Services Laboratory .
  • Worley , S. D. , Williams , D. E. , Barnela , S. B. , Elder , E. D. , Swango , L. J. and Kong , L. 1987 . “ New halamine water disinfectants ” . In Progress in Chemical Disinfection , Edited by: Janauer , G. E. Vol. 3 , 61 Binghamton : State University of New York .
  • Worley , S. D. and Williams , D. E. 1988 . Mixtures of free chlorine and an organic N‐halamine as water disinfectants . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 80 : 69
  • Elder , E. D. , Worley , S. D. and Williams , D. E. 1987 . Bactericidal properties of an organic N‐chloramine formed in situ . J. Appl. Bacterial. , 62 : 457
  • Kohl , H. H. , Wheatley , W. B. , Worley , S. D. and Bodor , N. 1980 . Antimicrobial activity of N‐chloramine compounds . J. Pharm. Sci. , 69 : 1292
  • Ahmed , H. , Aull , J. L. , Williams , D. E. and Worley , S. D. 1986 . Inactivation of thymidylate synthase by chlorine disinfectants . Int. J. Biochem. , 18 : 245
  • Walles , W. E. 1971 . N‐Chloro or Bromo‐2‐Oxazolidinones . U.S. 3591601,
  • Lindmark , D. G. 1984 . “ Current concepts in Giardla research ” . In Progress In Chemical Disinfection , Edited by: Janauer , G. E. Vol. 2 , 181 Binghamton : State University of New York .
  • Clifford , R. P. , Purdie , R. , Clarkson , D. and Longworth , S. W. 1986 . Halogen Release Bioeide . EP 181068 A2,
  • Barnela , S. B. , Worley , S. D. and Williams , D. E. 1987 . Syntheses and antibacterial activity of new N‐halamine compounds . J. Pharm. Sci. , 76 : 245
  • Worley , S. D. , Williams , D. E. and Barnela , S. B. 1987 . The stabilities of new N‐halamine water disinfectants . Water Res. , 21 : 983
  • Williams , D. E. , Worley , S. D. , Barnela , S. B. and Swango , L. J. 1987 . The bactericidal activities of selected organic N‐halamines . Appl. Environ. Microblol. , 53 : 2082
  • Worley , S. D. , Williams , D. E. , Barnela , S. B. and Swango , L. J. “ New halamine water disinfectants ” . In Water Chlorination: Chemical Environmental Impact and Health Effects Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 6 , in press.
  • Haas , C. N. and Engelbrecht , R. S. Mode of microbial inactivation by chlorine . Proc. American Society Civil Engineers Environmental Engineering Conf. pp. 646 New York : American Society of Civil Engineers .
  • Haas , C. N. and Engelbrecht , R. S. 1980 . Chlorine dynamics during inactivation of coliforms, acid‐fast bacteria and yeasts . Water Res. , 14 : 1749
  • Green , D.E. and Stumpf , P. K. 1946 . The mode of action of chlorine . J. Am. Water Works'Assoc. , 38 : 1301
  • Knox , W. E. , Stumpf , P. K. , Green , D. E. and Auerbach , V. H. 1948 . The inhibition of sulfhydryl enzymes as the basis of the bactericidal action of chlorine . J. Bacteriol. , 55 : 451
  • Venkobachar , C. , Iyengar , L. and Rao , A. V. S. P. 1975 . Mechanism of disinfection . Water Res. , 9 : 119
  • Ingols , R. S. , Wyckoff , H. A. , Kethley , T. W. , Hodgen , H. W. , Fincher , E. L. , Hildebrand , J. C. and Mandel , J. E. 1953 . Bactericidal studies of chlorine . Ind. Eng. Chem. , 45 : 996
  • Venkobachar , C. , Iyengar , L. and Rao , A. V. S. P. 1977 . Mechanism of disinfection: effect of chlorine on cell membrane functions . Water Res. , 11 : 727
  • Friberg , L. 1956 . Quantitative studies on the reaction of chlorine with bacteria in water disinfection . Acta Pathol. Scand. , 38 : 135
  • Friberg , L. 1957 . Further quantitative studies on the reaction of chlorine with bacteria in water disinfection. II. Experimental investigations with 36Cl and 32P . Acta Pathol. Scand. , 40 : 67
  • McFetters , G. A. and Camper , A. K. 1983 . Enumeration of indicator bacteria exposed to chlorine . Adv. Appl. Microblol. , 29 : 177
  • McFeters , G. A. , Cameron , S. C. and Le Chevallier , M. W. 1981 . Influence of diluents, media, and membrane filters on detection of injured waterbome coliform bacteria . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 43 : 97
  • Le Chevallier , M. W. , Cameron , S. C. and McFeters , G. A. 1983 . New medium for improved recovery of coliform bacteria from drinking water . Appl. Environ. Microblol. , 45 : 484
  • Alico , R. K. and Dragonjac , M. F. 1985 . Evaluation of culture media for recovery of Staphylococcus aureus from swimming pools . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 51 : 699
  • Dennis , W. H. 1979 . The reaction of nucleotides with aqueous hypochlorous acid . Water Res. , 13 : 357
  • Dennis , W. H. , Olivieri , V. P. and Kruse , C. W. 1979 . Mechanism of disinfection: incorporation of Cl‐36 into f2 virus . Water Res. , 13 : 363
  • Olivieri , V. P. , Kruse , C. W. , Hsu , Y. C. , Griffiths , A. C. and Kawata , K. 1975 . “ The comparative mode of action of chlorine, bromine, and iodine of f2 bacterial virus ” . In Disinfection — Water and Wastewater , Edited by: Johnson , J. D. 145 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Tenno , K. M. , Fujioka , R. S. and Loh , P. C. 1980 . “ The mechanism of poliovirus inactivation by hypochlorous acid ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 3 , 655 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Fujioka , R. S. , Tenno , K. M. and Loh , P. C. 1983 . “ Mechanism of chloramine inactivation of poliovirus. A concern for regulators? ” . In Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects , Edited by: Jolley , R. L. Vol. 4 , 1067 Ann Arbor, Mich. : Ann Arbor Science .
  • Shih , K. L. and Lederberg , J. 1976 . Effects of chloramine on Bacillus subtilis deoxyribonucleic acid . J. Bacteriol. , 125 : 934

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.