Hexachlorocyclohexanes in the Environment: Mechanisms of Dechlorination

REFERENCES

• Kolpin , D. W. , Barbash , J. E. and Gilliom , R. J. 1998 . Occurrence of pesticides in shallow groundwater of the United States . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 558 – 566 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker , K. , Vallero , D. A. and Lewis , R. G. 1999 . Factors influencing the distribution of lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexanes in the environment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 33 : 4373 – 4378 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willett , K. L. , Ulrich , E. M. and Hites , R. A. 1998 . Differential toxicity and environmental fates of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 2197 – 2207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2002 . List of drinking water contaminants & MCLs , National Primary Drinking Water Regulations . EPA 816-F-02–013
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2008 . Guidelines for drinking water: Third edition , Geneva, , Switzerland : World Health Organization .
   Google Scholar
• Gao , J. J. , Liu , L. H. , Liu , X. R. , Lu , J. , Zhou , H. D. , Huang , S. B. , Wang , Z. J. and Spear , P. A. 2008 . Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides—lindane, p,p′-DDT, and heptachlor epoxide—in surface water of China . Environ. Int. , 34 : 1097 – 1103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen , K. M. , Christensen , J. H. , Brandt , J. , Frohn , L. M. and Geels , C. 2004 . Modelling atmospheric transport of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane in the northern hemisphere with a 3-D dynamical model: DEHM-POP . Atmos. Chem. Phys. , 4 : 1125 – 1137 .
   Google Scholar
• Hansen , K. M. , Christensen , J. H. , Brandt , J. , Frohn , L. M. , Geels , C. , Skjoth , C. A. and Li , Y. F. 2008 . Modeling short-term variability of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane in Northern Hemispheric air . J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. , 113 ( D02310 )
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li , Y. F. , Scholtz , M. T. and van Heyst , B. J. 2000 . Global gridded emission inventories of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane . J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. , 105 : 6621 – 6632 .
   Google Scholar
• Li , Y. F. , Scholtz , M. T. and van Heyst , B. J. 2003 . Global gridded emission inventories of 6-hexachlorocyclohexane . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 3493 – 3498 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li , Y. F. , Zhulidov , A. V. , Robarts , R. D. and Korotova , L. G. 2005 . Hexachlorocyclohexane use in the former Soviet Union . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol , 48 ( 1 ) : 10 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , Y. F. , Zhulidov , A. V. , Robarts , R. D. , Korotova , L. G. , Zhulidov , D. A. , Yurtovaya , T. Y. and Ge , L. P. 2006 . Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane usage in the Former Soviet Union . Sci. Tot. Environ. , 357 ( 1–3 ) : 138 – 145 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwarzenbach , R. P. , Gschwend , P. M. and Imboden , D. M. 2003 . Environmental organic chemistry , 2nd Ed. , New York, NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Slade , R. E. 1945 . The γ-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (gammexane): An insecticide with outstanding properties . Chemistry and Industry , 40 : 314 – 319 .
   Google Scholar
• Iwata , H. , Tanabe , S. , Sakal , N. and Tatsukawa , R. 1993 . Distribution of persistent organochlorines in the oceanic air and surface seawater and the role of ocean on their global transport and fate . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 27 : 1080 – 1098 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• March , J. 1985 . Advanced organic chemistry: Reactions, mechanisms, and structure , 3rd ed. , New York, NY : Wiley-Interscience .
   Google Scholar
• Hughes , E. D. , Ingold , C. K. and Pasternak , R. J. 1953 . Mechanism of elimination reactions. Part XVIII. Kinetics and steric course of elimination from isomeric benzene hexachlorides . J. Chem. Soc. , : 3832 – 3839 .
   Google Scholar
• Mackay , D. , Shiu , W. X. and Ma , K. C. 1997 . Illustrated handbook of physical-chemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals. Volume V , New York, NY : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Beland , F. A. , Farwell , S. O. , Robocker , A. E. and Geer , R. D. 1976 . Electrochemical reduction and anaerobic degradation of lindane . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 24 : 753 – 756 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , D. W. and McCarty , P. L. 1967 . Anaerobic degradation of selected chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides . J. Water. Poll. Control. Fed. , 39 : 1259 – 1277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagnow , G. , Haider , K. and Ellwardt , P. C. 1977 . Anaerobic dechlorination and degradation of Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by anaerobic and faculative anaerobic bacteria . Arch. Microbiol. , 115 : 285 – 292 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middledorp , P. J. , Jaspers , M. , Zehnder , A. J.B. and Schraa , G. 1996 . Biotransformation of α-, β-, γ-, and δ-hexachlorocyclohexane under methanogenic conditions . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 30 : 2345 – 2349 .
   Google Scholar
• Ohisa , N. , Yamaguchi , M. and Kurihara , N. 1980 . Lindane degradation by cell-free extracts of chlostridium rectum . Arch. Microbiol. , 125 : 221 – 225 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsukano , Y. and Kobayashi , A. 1972 . Formation of γ-BTC in flooded rice field soils treated with γ-BHC . Agr. Biol. Chem. , 36 : 166 – 167 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johri , A. K. , Dua , M. , Tuteja , D. , Saxena , R. , Saxena , D. M. and Lal , R. 1996 . Genetic manipulations of microorganisms for the degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane . FEMS Microbiol. Rev. , 19 : 69 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quintero , J. C. , Moreira , M. T. , Feijoo , G. and Lema , J. M. 2005 . Anaerobic degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in liquid and soil slurry systems . Chemosphere , 61 : 528 – 536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Doesburg , W. , Van Eekert , M. H.A. , Middeldrop , P. J.M. , Balk , M. , Schraa , G. and Stams , A. J.M. 2005 . Reductive dechlorination of β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) by a Dehalobacter species in coculture with a Sedimentibacter sp . FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. , 54 : 87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta , A. , Kaushik , C. P. and Kaushik , A. 2000 . Degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH, α, β, γ and δ) by Bacillus circulans and Bacillus brevis isolated from soil contaminated with HCH . Soil Biol. Biochem. , 32 : 1803 – 1805 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rath , A. K. , Ramakrishnan , B. , Rath , A. K. , Kumaraswamy , S. , Bharati , K. , Singla , P. and Sethunathan , S. 1998 . Effect of pesticides on microbial biomass of flooded soil . Chemosphere , 37 : 661 – 671 .
   Google Scholar
• Sahu , S. K. , Patnaik , K. K. and Sethunathan , N. 1992 . Dehydrochlorination of δ-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium, Pseudomonas sp . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 48 : 265 – 268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahu , S. K. , Patnaik , K. K. , Bhuyan , S. , Sreedharan , B. , Kurihara , N. , Adhya , T. K. and Sethunathan , N. 1995 . Mineralization of α-, γ-, and β-isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 43 : 833 – 837 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahu , S. K. , Patnaik , K. K. , Sharmila , M. and Sethunathan , N. 1990 . Degradation of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 56 : 3620 – 3622 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu , W. Z. , Xu , Y. , Schramm , K. W. and Kettrup , A. 1997 . Study of sorption, biodegradation and isomerization of HCH in stimulated sediment/water system . Chemosphere , 35 : 1887 – 1894 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orloff , H. D. , Calingaert , G. , Griffing , M. E. , Kerr , E. R. and Kolka , A. J. 1951 . The partial additive chlorination of the benzene ring. I. Alpha benzene tetrachloride . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 73 : 5224 – 5229 .
   Google Scholar
• Streitweiser , A. and Heathcock , C. H. 1981 . Introduction to organic chemistry , 2nd ed. , New York, NY : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Pauling , L. 1950 . College chemistry , San Francisco, CA : W. H. Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Orloff , H. D. 1954 . The stereoisomerism of cyclohexane derivatives . Chem. Rev. , 54 : 347 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 2005 . Toxicological profile for alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-hexachlorocyclohexane , Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Health and Human Services .
   Google Scholar
• Montogomery , J. M. 1996 . Groundwater chemicals desk reference , 2nd ed. , Boca Raton, FL : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1996 . Soil screening guidance technical background document EPA/540/R-95/128
   Google Scholar
• Hansen , K. M. , Halsall , C. J. , Christensen , J. H. , Brandt , J. , Frohn , L. M. , Geels , C. and Skjoth , C. A. 2008 . The role of the snowpack on the fate of alpha-HCH in an atmospheric chemistry-transport model . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 42 : 2943 – 2948 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen , K. M. , Prevedouros , K. , Sweetman , A. J. , Jones , K. C. and Christensen , J. H. 2006 . A process-oriented inter-comparison of a box model and an atmospheric chemistry transport model: Insights into model structure using alpha-HCH as the modelled substance . Atmos. Environ. , 40 : 2089 – 2104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jantunen , L. M. , Helm , P. A. , Kylin , H. and Bidlemant , T. F. 2008 . Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in the Canadian archipelago. 2. Air-water gas exchange of alpha- and gamma-HCH . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 42 : 465 – 470 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jantunen , L. M. , Kylin , H. and Bidleman , T. F. 2004 . Air-water gas exchange of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane enantiomers in the South Atlantic Ocean and Antarctica . Deep-Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. , 51 : 2661 – 2672 .
   Google Scholar
• Abhilash , P. C. and Singh , N. 2008 . Influence of the application of sugarcane bagasse on lindane (gamma-HCH) mobility through soil column: Implication for biotreatment . Biores. Technol. , 99 : 8961 – 8966 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quintero , J. C. , Moreira , M. T. , Feijoo , G. and Lema , J. M. 2005 . Effect of surfactants on the soil desorption of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers and their anaerobic biodegradation . J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. , 80 : 1005 – 1015 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Beit , I. O.D. , Wheelock , J. V. and Cotton , D. E. 1981 . Factors affecting soil residues of dieldrin, endosulfan, gamma-HCH, dimethoate and pyrolan . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 5 : 135 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira Vogel , T. M. , Criddle , C. S. and McCarty , P. L. 1987 . Transformations of halogenated aliphatic compounds . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 21 : 722 – 736 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ingold , C. K. 1953 . Structure and mechanism in organic chemistry , Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ngabe , B. , Bidleman , T. F. and Falconer , R. L. 1993 . Base hydrolysis of α- and γ-hexachlorocylohexanes . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 27 : 1930 – 1933 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristol , S. J. 1947 . The kinetics of the alkaline dehydrochlorination of the benzene hexachloride isomers. The mechanism of second-order elimination reactions . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 69 : 338 – 342 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristol , S. J. , Hause , N. L. and Meek , J. S. 1951 . Mechanism of elimination reactions. III. The kinetics of the alkaline dehydrochlorination of the benzene hexachloride isomers. II . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 73 : 674 – 679 .
   Google Scholar
• Hughes , E. D. and Ingold , C. K. 1941 . The mechanism and kinetics of elimination reactions . Trans. Faraday Soc. , 37 : 657 – 685 .
   Google Scholar
• Liu , X. , Peng , P. , Fu , J. and Huang , W. 2003 . Effects of FeS on the transformation kinetics of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 1822 – 1828 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casanova , J. and Rogers , H. R. 1974 . Electroorganic chemistry. II. Electroreduction of vicinal dibromides . J. Org. Chem. , 39 : 2408 – 2410 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stumm , W. and Morgan , J. 1996 . Aquatic chemistry , 3rd ed. , New York, NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Mackenzie , K. , Battke , J. , Koehler , R. and Kopinke , F. D. 2005 . Catalytic effects of activated carbon on hydrolysis reactions of chlorinated organic compounds: Part 2. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane . Appl. Catal. B: Environ. , 59 : 171 – 179 .
   Google Scholar
• Kulikov , S. M. , Plekhanov , V. P. , Tsyganok , A. I. , Schlimm , C. and Heitz , E. 1996 . Electrochemical reductive dechlorination of chlororganic compounds on carbon cloth and metal-modified carbon cloth cathodes . Electrochimica Acta , 41 : 527 – 531 .
   Google Scholar
• Birkin , P. R. , Evans , A. , Milhano , C. , Montenegro , M. I. and Pletcher , D. 2004 . The mediated reduction of lindane in DMF . Electroanalysis , 16 : 583 – 587 .
   Google Scholar
• MacRae , I. C. , Raghu , K. and Castro , T. F. 1967 . Persistence and biodegradation of four common isomers of benzene hexachloride in submerged soils . J. Agr. Food Chem. , 15 : 911 – 914 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacRae , I. C. , Raghu , K. and Bautista , E. M. 1969 . Anaerobic degradation of the insecticide lindane by clostridium sp . Nature , 221 : 859 – 860 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethunathan , N. , Bautista , E. M. and Yoshida , T. 1969 . Degradation of benzene hexachloride by a soil bacterium . Can. J. Microbiol. , 15 : 1349 – 1354 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yule , W. N. , Chiba , M. and Morely , H. V. 1967 . Fate of insecticide residues. Decomposition of lindane in soil . J. Agr. Food Chem. , 15 : 1000 – 1004 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachmann , A. , de Bruin , W. , Jumelet , J. C. , Rijnaarts , H. H.N. and Zehnder , A. J.B. 1988 . Aerobic mineralization of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane in contaminated soil . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 54 : 548 – 554 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachmann , A. , Walet , P. , Wijnen , P. , de Bruin , W. , Huntjens , J. L.M. and Zehnder , A. J.B. 1988 . Biodegradation of alpha and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane in a soil slurry under different redox conditions . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 54 : 143 – 149 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buser , H. R. and Müller , M. D. 1995 . Isomer and enantioselective degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in sewage sludge under anaerobic conditions . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 29 : 664 – 672 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okeke , B. C. , Siddique , T. , Arbestain , M. C. and Frankenberger , W. T. 2002 . Biodegradation of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane) and α-hexachlorocyclohexane in water and a soil slurry by a pandoraea species . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 : 2548 – 2555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu , C. M. 1975 . Interaction between lindane and microbes in soils . Arch. Microbiol. , 105 : 131 – 134 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tu , C. M. 1976 . Utilization and degradation of lindane by soil microorganisms . Arch. Microbiol. , 108 : 258 – 263 .
   Google Scholar
• Siddique , T. , Okeke , B. C. , Arshad , M. and Frankenberger , W. T. 2000 . Temperature and pH effects on biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in water and a soil slurry . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 : 5070 – 5076 .
   Google Scholar
• Imai , R. , Nagata , Y. , Senoo , K. , Wada , H. , Fukuda , M. , Takagi , M. and Yano , K. 1989 . Dehydrochlorination of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-BHC) by gamma-BHC assimilating pseudomonas-paucimobilis . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 53 : 2015 – 2017 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips , T. M. , Lee , H. , Trevors , J. T. and Seech , A. G. 2004 . Mineralization of hexachlorocyclohexane in soil during solid-phase bioremediation . J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol , 31 : 216 – 222 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillips , T. M. , Seech , A. G. , Lee , H. and Trevors , J. T. 2005 . Biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) by microorganisms . Biodegradation , 16 : 363 – 392 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips , T. M. , Lee , H. , Trevors , J. T. and Seech , A. G. 2006 . Full-scale in situ bioremediation of hexachlorocyclohexane-contaminated soil . J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. , 81 : 289 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , M. , Gupta , S. K. , Garg , S. K. and Kumar , A. 2006 . Biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane-isomers in contaminated soil . Soil. Biol. Biochem. , 38 : 2318 – 2327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubinos , D. A. , Villasuso , R. , Muniategui , S. , Barral , M. T. and Diaz-Fierros , F. 2007 . Using the land-farming technique to remediate soils contaminated with hexachlorocyclohexane isomers . Water Air Soil Pollut. , 181 : 385 – 399 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , M. , Chaudhary , P. , Dwivedi , M. , Kumar , R. , Paul , D. , Jain , R. K. , Garg , S. K. and Kumar , A. 2005 . Enhanced biodegradation of beta- and delta-hexachlorocyclohexane in the presence of alpha- and gamma-isomers in contaminated soils . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 39 : 4005 – 4011 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata , Y. , Miyauchi , K. and Takagi , M. 1999 . Complete analysis of genes and enzymes for gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane degradation in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26 . J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 23 : 380 – 390 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata , Y. , Endo , R. , Ito , M. , Ohtsubo , Y. and Tsuda , M. 2007 . Aerobic degradation of lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) in bacteria and its biochemical and molecular basis . Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 76 : 741 – 752 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Endo , R. , Ohtsubo , Y. , Tsuda , M. and Nagata , Y. 2007 . Identification and characterization of genes encoding a putative ABC-type transporter essential for utilization of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane in Sphingobium japonicum UT26 . J. Bacteriol. , 189 : 3712 – 3720 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata , Y. , Kamakura , M. , Endo , R. , Miyazaki , R. , Ohtsubo , Y. and Tsuda , M. 2006 . Distribution of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading genes on three replicons in Sphingobium japonicum UT26 . FEMS Microbiol. Lett. , 256 : 112 – 118 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Endo , R. , Kamakura , M. , Miyauchi , K. , Fukuda , M. , Ohtsubo , Y. , Tsuda , M. and Nagata , Y. 2005 . Identification and characterization of genes involved in the downstream degradation pathway of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26 . J. Bacteriol. , 187 : 847 – 853 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suar , M. , Van Der Meer , J. R. , Lawlor , M. , Holliger , C. and Lal , R. 2004 . Dynamics of multiple lin gene expression in sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A in response to different hexachlorocyclohexane isomers . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 70 : 6650 – 6656 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ito , M. , Prokop , Z. , Klvana , M. , Otsubo , Y. , Tsuda , M. , Damborsky , J. and Nagata , Y. 2007 . Degradation of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane by haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane-utilizing bacterium sphingobium sp MI1205 . Arch. Microbiol. , 188 : 313 – 325 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lal , R. , Dogra , C. , Malhotra , S. , Sharma , P. and Pal , R. 2006 . Diversity, distribution and divergence of lin genes in hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading sphingomonads . Trends Biotechnol. , 24 : 121 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suar , M. , Hauser , A. , Poiger , T. , Buser , H. R. , Muller , M. D. , Dogra , C. , Raina , V. , Holliger , C. , Van Der Meer , J. R. , Lal , R. and Kohler , H. P.E. 2005 . Enantioselective transformation of alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane by the dehydrochlorinases LinA1 and LinA2 from the soil bacterium Sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 71 : 8514 – 8518 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dogra , C. , Raina , V. , Pal , R. , Suar , M. , Lal , S. , Gartemann , K. H. , Holliger , C. , Van Der Meer , J. R. and Lal , R. 2004 . Organization of lin genes and IS6100 among different strains of hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading Sphingomonas paucimobilis: Evidence for horizontal gene transfer . J. Bacteriol. , 186 : 2225 – 2235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata , Y. , Prokop , Z. , Sato , Y. , Jerabek , P. , Kumar , A. , Ohtsubo , Y. , Tsuda , M. and Damborsky , J. 2005 . Degradation of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane by haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26 . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 71 : 2183 – 2185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schraa , G. , Boone , M. L. , Jetten , M. S.M. , van Neerven , A. R.W. , Colberg , P. J. and Zehnder , A. J.B. 1986 . Degradation of 1,4-dichlorobenzene by alcaligenes sp. strain A175 . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 52 : 1374 – 1381 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagasawa , S. , Kikuchi , R. , Nagata , Y. , Takagi , M. and Matsuo , M. 1993 . Stereochemical analysis of gamma-HCH degradation by pseudomonas-paucimobilis UT26 . Chemosphere , 26 : 1187 – 1201 .
   Google Scholar
• Elliott , D. W. and Zhang , W. X. 2001 . Field assessment of nanoscale bimetallic particles for groundwater treatment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 35 : 4922 – 4926 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lien , H. L. and Zhang , W. X. 1999 . Transformation of chlorinated methanes by nanoscale iron particles . J. Environ. Eng. , 125 : 1042 – 1047 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , C. B. and Zhang , W. X. 1997 . Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 31 : 2154 – 2156 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu , Y. and Zhang , W. X. 2000 . Subcolloidal Fe/Ag particles for reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated benzenes . Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. , 39 : 2238 – 2244 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , W. X. 2003 . Nanoscale iron particles for environmental remediation: An overview . J. Nanopart. Res. , 5 : 323 – 332 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , W. X. , Wang , C. B. and Lien , H. L. 1998 . Treatment of chlorinated organic contaminants with nanoscale bimetallic particles . Catal. Today , 40 : 387 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , X. Q. , Elliott , D. W. and Zhang , W. X. 2006 . Zero-valent iron nanoparticles for abatement of environmental pollutants: Materials and engineering aspects . Crit. Rev. Solid. State Mater. Sci. , 31 : 111 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott , D. W. , Lien , H. L. and Zhang , W. X. 2008 . Zero valent iron Nanoparticles for treatment of ground water contaminated by hexachlorocyclohexanes . J. Environ. Qual. , 37 : 2192 – 2201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott , D. W. , Lien , H. L. and Zhang , W. X. 2009 . Degradation of lindane by zero valent iron nanoparticles . J. Environ. Eng. , 135 : 317 – 324 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , T. L. , Scherer , M. M. and Tratnyek , P. G. 1996 . Kinetics of halogenated organic compound degradation by iron metal . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 30 : 2634 – 2640 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar