Evaluation of Exposure Metrics for Effect Assessment of Soil Invertebrates

REFERENCES

• Akkerhuis , G. A.J.M. 1993 . Physical conditions affecting pyrethroid toxicity in arthropods , Wageningen , , the Netherlands : University of Wageningen . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Alexander , M. 1995 . How toxic are toxic chemicals in soil? . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 29 : 2713 – 2717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amorim , M. J.B. , Römbke , J. , Scheffczyk , A. and Soares , A. 2005 . Effect of different soil types on the enchytraeids Enchytraeus albidus and Enchytraeus luxuriosus using the herbicide Phenmedipham . Chemosphere , 61 : 1102 – 1114 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barriuso , E. , Benoit , P. and Dubus , I. G. 2008 . Formation of pesticide nonextractable (bound) residues in soil: Magnitude, controlling factors and reversibility . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 42 : 845 – 1854 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belfroid , A. C. , Meiling , J. , Seinen , W. , Van Gestel , K. and Hermens , J. 1994 . Uptake of hydrophobic halogenated organic chemicals from food by earthworms (Eisenia andrei) . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 27 : 260 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belfroid , A. C. , Seinen , W. , Van Gestel , K. , Hermens , J. and Van Leeuwen , K. 1995 . Modelling the accumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in earthworms: Application of the Equilibrium Partitioning Theory . Environ. Sci. Poll. Res. , 2 : 5 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belfroid , A. C. and Sijm , D. T.H.M. 1998 . Influence of soil organic matter content on elimination rates of hydrophobic aromatic compounds in the earthworm: Possible causes and consequences . Chemosphere , 37 : 1221 – 1234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belfroid , A. C. , Sijm , D. T.H.M. and Van Gestel , C. A.M. 1996 . Bioavailability and toxicokinetics of hydrophobic aromatic compounds in benthic and terrestrial invertebrates . Environ. Rev. , 4 : 276 – 299 .
   Google Scholar
• Belfroid , A. C. and Van Gestel , C. A.M. 1999 . Blootstellingsroutes van toxische stoffen voor terrestrische invertebraten – literatuur studie [Exposure routes of toxic chemical for terrestrial invertebrates - literature review.] , Amsterdam , , the Netherlands : Vrije Universiteit, Instituut voor Milieuvraagstukken, report no. E-99/06 .
   Google Scholar
• Bengtsson , G. , Gunnarson , T. and Rundgren , S. 1983 . Growth changes caused by metal uptake in a population of Onychiurus armatus (Collembola) feeding on metal polluted fungi . Oikos , 40 : 215 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyer , W. N. 1996 . Accumulation of chlorinated benzenes in earthworms . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 57 : 729 – 736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boesten , J. J.T.I. 1993 . Bioavailability of organic chemicals in soil related to their concentrations in the liquid phase: A review . Sci. Total Environ. , 34 : 397 – 407 .
   Google Scholar
• Boesten , J. J.T.I. , Köpp , H. , Adriaanse , P. I. , Brock , T. C.M. and Forbes , V. E. 2007 . Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides . Ecotox. Environ. Safety , 66 : 291 – 308 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouldin , J. L. , Farris , J. L. , Moore , M. T. , Smith , S. Jr. and Cooper , C. M. 2006 . Hydroponic uptake of atrazine and lambda-cyhalothrin in Juncus effuses and Ludwiga peploides . Chemosphere , 65 : 1049 – 1057 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs , G. G. and Lord , K. A. 1983 . The distribution of aldicarb and its metabolites between Lumbricus terrestris, water and soil . Pestic. Sci. , 14 : 412 – 416 .
   Google Scholar
• Bruns , E. , Egeler , P. , Roembke , J. , Scheffczyk , A. and Spoerlein , P. 2001 . Bioaccumulation of lindane and hexachlorobenzen by the oligochaetes Enchytraeus luxuriosus and Enchytraeus albidus (Enchytraeidae, Oligochaeta, Annelida) . Hydrobiol , 463 : 185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carefoot , T. H. 1993 . Physiology of terrestrial isopods . Comp. Biocehm. Physiol. , 106A : 413 – 429 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornelissen , G. and Gustafsson , O. 2005 . Importance of unburnt coal carbon, black carbon and amorphous organic carbon to phenanthrene sorption in sediments . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 39 : 764 – 769 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornelissen , G. , Rigterink , H. , Ferdinandy , M. M.A. and van Noort , P. C.M. 1998 . Rapidly desorbing fractions of PAHs in contaminated sediments as a predictor of the extent of bioremediation . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 32 : 966 – 970 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doube , B. M. and Brown , G. C. 1998 . “ Life in a complex community: Functional interactions between earthworms, organic matter, microorganisms and plants ” . In Earthworm ecology , Edited by: Edwards , C. A. 179 – 212 . Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Edney , E. B. 1977 . Water balance in land arthropods: Zoology and ecology , Vol. 9 , Berlin : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization . 2003 . Environmental risk assessment scheme for plant protection products. Chapter 8: Soil organisms and functions Bulletin OEPP/EPPO 33
   Google Scholar
• European Commission . 2002 . Guidance document on terrestrial ecotoxicology Council Directive 91/414/EEC. SANCO/10329/2002 revision 2 final. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/protection/evaluation/guidance/wrkdoc09_en.pdf, Accessed 31 July 2012
   Google Scholar
• European Food Safety Authority . 2009 . Scientific opinion of the Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues on a request of EFSA on the usefulness of total concentrations and pore water concentrations of pesticides in soil as metrics for the assessment of ecotoxicological effects . EFSA J. , 922 : 1 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• European Food Safety Authority . 2010 . Scientific opinion on the importance of the soil litter layer in agricultural areas . EFSA J. , 8 : 1625
   Google Scholar
• Everts , J. W. 1990 . Sensitive indicators of side-effects of pesticides on the epigeal fauna of arable land , Wageningen , , the Netherlands : University of Wageningen . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Flocco , C. G. , Balbo , L. , Carranza , M. P. and Giulietti , A. M. 2002 . Removal of phenol by alfalfa plants (Medicago sativa L) grown in hydroponics and its effect on some physiological parameters . Acta Biotechnol. , 22 : 43 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• Gyldenkærne , S. and Jørgensen , S. E. 2000 . Modelling the bioavailability of pesticides to soildwelling organisms . Ecol. Modell. , 132 : 203 – 230 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadley , N. F. 1994 . Water relations of terrestrial arthropods , San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hadley , N. F. and Quinlan , M. C. 1989 . Cuticular permeability of the black widow spider Latrodectus lesperus . J. Comp. Physiol. B. , 159 : 243 – 248 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmsen , J. 2007 . Measuring bioavailability: From a scientific approach to standard methods . J. Environ. Qual. , 36 : 1420 – 1428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendriks , A. J. and Heikens , A. 2001 . The power of size. 2. Rate constants and equilibrium ratios for accumulation of inorganic substances related to species weight . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 20 : 1421 – 1437 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendriks , A. J. , van der Linden , A. M.A. , Cornelissen , G. and Sijm , D. T.H.M. 2001 . The power of size. 1. Rate constants and equilibrium ratios for accumulation of organic substances related to octanol–water partition ratio and species weight . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 20 : 1401 – 1420 .
   Google Scholar
• Hermens , J. L.M. , Heringa , M. B. and Ter Laak , T. L. 2007 . Bioavailability in dose and exposure assessment of organic contaminants in (eco)toxicology . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 70 : 727 – 730 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrchen , M. , Debus , R. and Pramanik-Strehlow , R. 1997 . Bioavailability as a key property in terrestrial ecotoxicity assessment and evaluation , Stuttgart , , Germany : Fraunhofer IRB Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Hickman , Z. A. and Reid , B. J. 2005 . Toward a more appropriate water based extraction for the assessment of organic contaminant availability . Environ. Pollut. , 138 : 299 – 306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkin , S. P. 1989 . Ecophysiology of metals in terrestrial invertebrates , London : Elsevier Applied Science .
   Google Scholar
• Hulzebos , E. M. , Adema , D. M.M. , Dirven-van Breemen , E. M. , Henzen , L. , van Dis , W. A. , Herbold , H. A. , Hoekstra , J. A. , Baerselman , R. and Van Gestel , C. A.M. 1993 . Phytotoxicity studies with Lactuca sativa in soil and nutrient solution . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 12 : 1079 – 1094 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hund-Rinke , K. , Achazi , R. K. , Römbke , J. and Warnecke , D. 2003 . Avoidance test with Eisenia fetida as indicator for the habitat function of soils: Results of a laboratory comparison test . J. Soils Sed. , 3 : 7 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 1993 . ISO No. 11268-1. Soil quality: Effects of pollutants on earthworms (Eisenia fetida): Part 1: Determination of acute toxicity using artificial soil substrate , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 1998 . ISO No. 11268-2. Soil quality: Effects of pollutants on earthworms (Eisenia fetida): Part 2: Determination of effects on reproduction , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 1999a . ISO No. 11268-3. Soil quality: Effects of pollutants on earthworms. Part 3: Guidance on the determination of effects in field situations , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 1999b . ISO No. 11267. Inhibition of reproduction of collembola (Folsomia candida) by soil pollutants , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 2004 . ISO No. 16387. Soil Quality: Effects of pollutants on Enchytraeidae (Enchytraeus sp.). Determination of effects on reproduction and survival , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 2008a . ISO No.17402. Soil quality: Requirements and guidance for the selection and application of methods for the assessment of bioavailability of contaminants in soil and soil materials , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 2008b . ISO 17512–1. Soil quality: Avoidance test for determining the quality of soils and effects of chemicals on behaviour: Part 1: Test with earthworms (Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei) , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 2010a . ISO 17512-2. Soil quality: Avoidance test for determining the quality of soils and effects of chemicals on behaviour: Part 2: Test with collembolans (Folsomia candida) , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• International Organization for Standardization . 2010b . ISO/DIS 10872. Water quality: Determination of the toxic effect of sediment and soil samples on growth, fertility and reproduction of Caenorhabditis elegans (Nematoda) , Geneva , , Switzerland : ISO .
   Google Scholar
• Jager , D. T. 1998 . Mechanistic approach for estimating bioconcentration of organic chemicals in earthworms (Oligochaeta) . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 17 : 2080 – 2090 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jager , D. T. 2003 . Worming your way into bioavailability: Modelling the uptake of organic chemicals in earthworms , Utrecht , , the Netherlands : University of Utrecht . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Koelmans , A. A. , Jonker , M. T.O. , Cornelissen , G. , Bucheli , T. D. , van Noort , P. C.M. and Gustafsson , Ö. 2006 . Black carbon: The reverse of its dark side . Chemosphere , 63 : 365 – 377 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraaij , R. , Mayer , P. , Busser , F. J.M. , Bolscher , M. V.H. , Seinen , W. and Tolls , J. 2003 . Measured pore water concentrations make equilibrium partitioning work: A data analysis . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 268 – 274 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legierse , K. C.H.M. 1998 . Differences in sensitivity of aquatic organisms to organophosphorus pesticides , Utrecht , , the Netherlands : University of Utrecht . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Leppänen , M. T. and Kukkonen , J. V.K. 2000 . Effect of sediment–chemical contact time on availability of sediment-associated pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene to oligochaete worms and semi-permeable membrane devices . Aquat. Toxicol. , 49 : 227 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linden , A. M.A. van der , Boesten , J. J.T.I. , Brock , T. C.M. , van Eekelen , G. M.A. , Ter Horst , M. M.S. , De Jong , F. M.W. , Montforts , M. H.M.M. and Pol , J. W. 2008 . Revised proposal for the risk assessment of persistence of plant protection products in soil , Bilthoven , , the Netherlands : RIVM . RIVM report 601712003/2008
   Google Scholar
• Lock , K. , De Schamphelaere , K. A.C. and Janssen , C. R. 2002 . The effect of lindane on terrestrial invertebrates . Arch. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. , 42 : 217 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu , X. , Reible , D. D. and Fleeger , J. W. 2004 . Relative importance of ingested sediment versus pore water as uptake routes for PAHs to the deposit-feeding Oligochaete Ilyodrilus templetoni . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 47 : 207 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma , W. , Immerzeel , J. and Bodt , J. 1995 . Earthworm and food interactions on bioaccumulation and disappearance in soil of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: studies on phenanthrene and fluoranthrene . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 32 : 226 – 232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKay , D. , Shiu , W. Y. and Ma , K. C. 1992 . Illustrated handbook of physical-chemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals. Volume II. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated dioxins, and dibenzofurans , Chelsea , MI : Lewis .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , D. E. , Robertson , B. K. and Alexander , M. 2000 . Bioavailability to earthworms of aged DDT, DDE, DDD, and dieldrin in soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 34 : 709 – 713 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidu , R. , Semple , K. T. , Megharaj , M. , Juhasz , A. L. , Bolan , N. S. , Gupta , S. , Clothier , B. , Schulin , R. and Chaney , R. 2008 . “ Bioavailability, definition, assessment and implications for risk assessment ” . In Chemical bioavailability in terrestrial environment , Edited by: Naidu , R. 39 – 52 . Amsterdam , , the Netherlands : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Narayanan , M. , Davis , L. C. , Tracy , J. C. , Erickson , L. E. and Green , R. M. 1995 . Experimental and modeling studies of the fate of organic contaminants in the presence of alfalfa plants . J. Hazard. Mater. , 41 : 229 – 249 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natal-Da-Luz , T. , Römbke , J. and Sousa , J. P. 2008 . Avoidance tests in site-specific assessment—influence of soil properties on the avoidance response of Collembola and earthworms . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 27 : 1112 – 1117 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 1984 . Guideline for testing of chemicals. No. 207. Earthworm acute toxicity tests , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2000a . Guideline for the testing of chemicals. No. 216. Soil microorganisms, carbon transformation test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2000b . Guideline for the testing of chemicals. No. 217. Soil microorganisms, nitrogen transformation test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2004a . Guideline for testing of chemicals No. 222. Earthworm reproduction test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2004b . Guideline for testing of chemicals No. 220. Enchytraeidae reproduction test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2006a . Guideline for testing of chemicals No. 208. Terrestrial plant test: seedling emergence and seedling growth test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2006b . Guideline for testing of chemicals No. 227. Terrestrial plant test: vegetative vigour test , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2006c . OECD series on testing and assessment No. 56. Guidance document on the breakdown of organic matter in litterbags , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development . 2008 . Guideline for testing of chemicals No. 226. Predatory mite (Hypoaspis (Geolaelaps) aculeifer) reproduction test in soil , Paris , , France : OECD .
   Google Scholar
• Peijnenburg , W. J.G.M. and Jager , T. 2003 . Monitoring approaches to assess bioaccessibility and bioavailability of metals: Matrix issues . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety , 56 : 63 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puglisi , E. , Cappa , F. , Fragoulis , G. , Trevisan , M. and Del Re , A. A.M. 2007 . Bioavailability and degradation of phenanthrene in compost amended soils . Chemosphere , 67 : 548 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puglisi , E. , Murk , A. J. , van den Berg , H. J. and Grotenhuis , T. 2007b . Extraction and bioanalysis of the ecotoxicologically relevant fraction of contaminants in sediments . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 26 : 2122 – 2128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichenberg , F. and Mayer , P. 2006 . Two complementary sides of bioavailability: Accessibility and chemical activity of organic contaminants in sediments and soils . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 25 : 1239 – 1245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , T. 1984 . Non-extractable residues in soils and plants . Pure Appl. Chem. , 56 : 945 – 956 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson , B. K. and Alexander , M. 1998 . Sequestration of DDT and dieldrin in soil: disappearance of acute toxicity but not the compounds . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 17 : 1034 – 1038 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Römbke , J. 2008 . “ Bioavailability in soil: The role of invertebrate behaviour ” . In Chemical bioavailability in terrestrial environments. Developments in Soil Science 32 , Edited by: Naidu , R. , Bolan , N. S. , Megharaj , M. , Juhasz , A. L. , Gupta , S. K. , Clothier , B. E. and Schulin , R. 245 – 260 . Amsterdam , , the Netherlands : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Römbke , J. , Jänsch , S. , Junker , T. , Pohl , B. , Scheffczyk , A. and Schallnass , H. 2007 . The effect of tributyltin-oxide on earthworms, springtails and plants in artificial and natural soils . Arch. Envir. Contam. Toxicol. , 52 : 525 – 534 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos , S. A. , Sousa , J. P. , Frost , M. and Soares , A. M. 2003 . Time-dependent toxicokinetics off [14C] lindane in the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus . Environ Toxicol Chem. , 22 : 2221 – 2227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaeffer , A. , van den Brink , P. , Heimbach , F. , Hoy , S. , De Jong , F. , Römbke , J. , Ross-Nickoll , M. and Sousa , J. P. 2010 . Semi-field methods for the environmental risk assessment of pesticides in soil , Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scientific Committee on Toxicology, Ecotoxicology and the Environment . 2000 . The available scientific approaches to assess the potential effects and risk of chemicals on terrestrial ecosystems , Paper presented at the 19th CSTEE plenary meeting . C2/JCD/csteeop/TER91100/D(0)
   Google Scholar
• Semple , K. T. , Doick , K. J. , Jones , K. C. , Burauel , P. , Craven , A. and Harms , H. 2004 . Defining bioavailability and bioaccessibility of contaminated soil and sediment is complicated . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 38 : 228A – 231A .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sochová , I. , Hoffman , J. and Holoubek , I. 2007 . Effects of seven organic pollutants on soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans . Environ. Int. , 33 : 798 – 804 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sormunen , A. J. , Leppänen , M. T. and Kukkonen , J. V. 2008 . Influence of sediment ingestion and exposure concentration on the bioavailable fraction of sediment-associated tetrachlorobiphenyl in oligochaetes . Environ Toxicol Chem. , 27 : 854 – 863 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sousa , J. P. , Loureiro , S. and Pieper , A. 2000 . Soil and plant diet exposure routes and toxicokinetics of lindane in a terrestrial isopod . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 19 : 2577 – 2580 .
   Google Scholar
• Spagnuolo , M. , Puglisi , E. , Vernile , P. , Bari , G. , de Lillo , E. , Trevisan , M. and Ruggiero , P. 2010 . Soil monitoring of pentachlorophenol by bioavailability and ecotoxicity measurements . J. Environ Monitor. , 12 : 1575 – 1581 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson , G. L. , Kaushik , A. , Kaushik , N. K. , Solomon , K. R. , Steele , T. and Scroggins , R. P. 1997 . “ Use of an avoidance-response test to assess the toxicity of contaminated soils to earthworms ” . In Advances in earthworm ecotoxicology , Edited by: Sheppard , S. C. , Bembridge , J. D. , Holmstrup , M. and Posthuma , L. 67 – 81 . Pensacola , Florida : SETAC .
   Google Scholar
• Styrishave , B. , Mortensen , M. , Krogh , P. H. , Andersen , O. and Jensen , J. 2008 . Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) as a tool to predict the bioavailability and toxicity of pyrene to the Springtail, Folsomia candida, under various soil conditions . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 42 : 1332 – 1336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sverdrup , L. E. , Nielsen , T. and Krogh , P. H. 2002 . Soil ecotoxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in relation to soil sorption, lipophilicity, and water solubility . Environ. Sci. Techn. , 36 : 2429 – 2434 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Brummelen , T. C. , Verweij , R. A. , Wedzinga , S. A. and Van Gestel , C. A.M. 1996 . Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in earthworms and isopods from contaminated forest soils . Chemosphere , 32 : 315 – 341 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gestel , C. A.M. 1997 . “ Scientific basis for extrapolating results from soil ecotoxicity tests to field conditions and the use of bioassays ” . In Ecological risk assessment of contaminants in soil , Edited by: van Straalen , N. M. and Løkke , H. 25 – 50 . London : Chapman & Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Van Gestel , C. A.M. , Adema , D. M.M. and Dirven-van Bremen , E. M. 1996 . Phytotoxicity of some chloroanilines and chlorophenols, in relation to bioavailability in soil . Water, Air, Soil Poll. , 88 : 119 – 132 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gestel , C. A.M. and Ma , W. 1988 . Toxicity and bioaccumulation of chlorophenols in earthworms, in relation to bioavailability in soil . Ecotox. Environ. Safety , 15 : 289 – 297 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Gestel , C. A.M. and Ma , W. 1990 . An approach to quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) in earthworms toxicity studies . Chemosphere , 21 : 1023 – 1033 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallwork , J. A. 1983 . Earthworm biology. The Institute of Biology's studies in biology no. 161 , London : Edward Arnold .
   Google Scholar
• Warburg , M. R. 1993 . Evolutionary biology of land isopods , Berlin : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Wells , R. M.G. 1980 . Invertebrate respiration. The Institute of Biology's studies in Biology no. 127 , London : Edward Arnold .
   Google Scholar
• Yeardley , R. B. , Lazorchak , J. M. and Gast , L. C. 1996 . The potential of an earthworm avoidance test for evaluation of hazardous waste sites . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 15 : 1532 – 1537 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , Y. L. , Wu , X. M. , Li , S. N. , Fang , H. , Zhan , H. Y. and Yu , J. Q. 2006 . An exploration of the relationships between adsorption and bioavailability of pesticides in soil to earthworm . Environ. Pollut. , 141 : 428 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar