2,574
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Groundwater status in Pakistan: A review of contamination, health risks, and potential needs

ORCID Icon, , , &
Pages 1713-1762 | Published online: 14 Dec 2017

References

  • Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance. (1971). An Ordinance to regulate the import, manufacture, formulation, sale, distribution and use of pesticides. punjablaws.gov.pk, Pakistan Legislation.
  • Ahad, K., Anwar, T., Ahmad, I., Mohammad, A., Tahir, S., Aziz, S., and Baloch, U. (2000). Determination of insecticide residues in groundwater of Mardan Division, NWFP, Pakistan: A case study. Water Sa-Pretoria, 26, 409–412.
  • Ahad, K, Hayat, Y, Ahmad, I, and Soomro, M. H. (2001). Capillary chromatographic determination of pesticides residues in groundwater of Multan Division. Nucleus, 38, 145–149.
  • Ahad, K., Mohammad, A., Khan, H., Ahmad, I., and Hayat, Y. (2010). Monitoring results for organochlorine pesticides in soil and water from selected obsolete pesticide stores in Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 166, 191–199.
  • Ahmad, M., Ahmad, B., Nawazish-i-Hussain, S., and Mahmood, S. (2003). Clinical investigations of skeletal fluorosis in children of Manga Mandi in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 16, 9–11.
  • Ahmad, S., Ali, A., Ullah, I., Naz, N., Ali, A., and Ali, N. (2013). Bacteriological and biochemical evaluation of the spring's water of district Buner Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. International Journal of Advancements in Research and Technology, 2, 452–460.
  • Ahmed, K., Ahmed, M., Ahmed, J., and Khan, A. (2012). Risk assessment by bacteriological evaluation of drinking water of Gilgit-Baltistan. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 44, 427–432.
  • Ahmed, R., Hussain, M., Tanwir, R., and Qureshi, S. (2004a). Monitoring of fluoride and iodide levels in drinking water using ion selective electrodes. Nucleus, 41, 51–58.
  • Ahmed, T., Kanwal, R., Tahir, S., and Rauf, N. (2004b). Bacteriological analysis of water collected from different dams of Rawalpindi/Islamabad region in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 7, 662–666.
  • Ahmed, T., Pervez, A., Mehtab, M., and Sherwani, S. K. (2014). Assessment of drinking water quality and its potential health impacts in academic institutions of Abbottabad (Pakistan). Desalination and Water Treatment, 54, 1819–1828.
  • Akbar, A., Sitara, U., Khan, S. A., Muhammad, N., Khan, M. I., Khan, Y. H., and Kakar, S. U. R. (2013). Drinking water quality and risk of waterborne diseases in the rural mountainous area of Azad Kashmir Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences, 3, 245–251.
  • Alamgir, A., Khan, M. A., Schilling, J., Shaukat, S. S., and Shahab, S. (2016). Assessment of groundwater quality in the coastal area of Sindh province, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188, 1–13.
  • Ali, J., Hussain, A., and Abid, H. (2011). The occurrence of coliforms bacteria in water reservoir at different schools of district Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 44, 64–67.
  • Ali, K., Javid, M., and Javid, M. (1996). Pollution and industrial waste. In Proceedings of the 6th National Congress of Soil Science, Lahore, Pakistan.
  • Alvi, S. (2005). Nitrate/Nitrite contamination in groundwater of Karachi and its correlation with other physicochemical parameters. Journal of Chemical Society of Pakistan, 27, 490–495.
  • Amin, M., and Han, M. (2009). Water environmental and sanitation status in disaster relief of Pakistan's 2005 earthquake. Desalination, 248, 436–445.
  • Amin, N., Ayaz, M., Alam, S., and Gul, S. (2013). Heavy metals contamination through industrial effluent to irrigation water in Gadoon Amazai (Swabi) and Hayatabad (Peshawar) Pakistan. Journal of Scientific Research, 6, 111–124.
  • Anonymous. (2010). World Water Day 22.03.2010; 2010. Retrieved from www.worldwaterday2010.info, UnitedNations.
  • Anwar, M., Chaudhry, N., and Tayyab, N. (1999). Bacteriological quality of drinking water in Punjab; elevation of H2S strip test. The Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 49, 237–241.
  • Anwar, M. S., Lateef, S., and Siddiqi, G. M. (2010). Bacteriological quality of drinking water in Lahore. Biomedica, 26, 66–69.
  • Arain, M., Kazi, T., Baig, J., Jamali, M., Afridi, H., Shah, A., and Sarfraz, R. (2009a). Determination of arsenic levels in lake water, sediment, and foodstuff from selected area of Sindh, Pakistan: Estimation of daily dietary intake. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 47, 242–248.
  • Arain, M. A., Haque, Z., Badar, N., and Mughal, N. (2009b). Drinking water contamination by chromium and lead in industrial lands of Karachi. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 59, 270–274.
  • Ashraf, A., and Ahmad, Z. (2008). Regional groundwater flow modelling of Upper Chaj Doab of Indus basin, Pakistan using finite element model (Feflow) and geoinformatics. Geophysical Journal International, 173, 17–24.
  • ASTDR. (1999). Toxicological profile for Mercury. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 676.
  • ATSDR. (2004). Toxicological profile for Copper. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service.
  • ATSDR. (2005). Toxicological profile for Nickel, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service.
  • ATSDR. (2008). Toxicological profile for Cadmium, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service.
  • ATSDR. (2012). Toxicological profile for Manganese. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved from; http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id1=4102&tid1=423.
  • ATSDR. (2015). The priority list of hazardous substances. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service.
  • Awais, M., Afzal, M., Granceri, M., and Saleem, M. (2016). Impact of urbanization on inflows and water quality of Rawal lake. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research Series A: Physical Sciences, 59, 167–172.
  • Aziz, J. (2005). Management of source and drinking-water quality in Pakistan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 11, 1087–1089.
  • Azizullah, A., Khattak, M. N. K., Richter, P., and Haider, D. P. (2011). Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health-a review. Environment International, 37, 479–497.
  • Azmi, M. A., Naqvi, S., Azmi, M. A., and Aslam, M. (2006). Effect of pesticide residues on health and different enzyme levels in the blood of farm workers from Gadap (rural area) Karachi-Pakistan. Chemosphere, 64, 1739–1744.
  • Bacha, A. A., Durrani, M. I., and Paracha, P. I. (2010). Physical and bacteriological characteristics of drinking water of Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 9, 1028–1033.
  • Baig, S., Xu, X., and Khan, R. (2012a). Microbial water quality risks to public health: Potable water assessment for a flood-affected town in northern Pakistan. Rural Remote Health 12, 1–6.
  • Baig, S. A., Xu, X., Navedullah, M. N., and Khan, Z. U. (2012b). Pakistan's drinking water and environmental sanitation status in post 2010 flood scenario: Humanitarian response and community needs. Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation, 7, 49–54.
  • Barbier, O., Jacquillet, G., Tauc, M., Cougnon, M., and Poujeol, P. (2005). Effect of heavy metals on, and handling by, the kidney. Nephron Physiology, 99, 105–110.
  • Barra, R., Popp, P., Quiroz, R., Bauer, C., Cid, H., and von Tumpling, W. (2005). Persistent toxic substances in soils and waters along an altitudinal gradient in the Laja River Basin, Central Southern Chile. Chemosphere, 58, 905–915.
  • Bastiaanssen, W. G., and Feddes, R. A. (2005). A new technique to estimate net groundwater use across large irrigated areas by combining remote sensing and water balance approaches, Rechna Doab, Pakistan. Hydrogeology Journal, 13 653–664.
  • Bellinger, D. C. (2005). Teratogen update: Lead and pregnancy. Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 73, 409–420.
  • Benejam, L., Angermeier, P. L., Munne, A., and Garcia‐Berthou, E. (2010). Assessing effects of water abstraction on fish assemblages in Mediterranean streams. Freshwater Biology, 55, 628–642.
  • Berman, J. (2009). WHO: Waterborne disease is world's leading killer. VOA News. US Government, Last updated on October, 29, 12.
  • Bhatti, M. T., Anwar, A. A., and Aslam, M. (2017). Groundwater monitoring and management: Status and options in Pakistan. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 135 143–153.
  • Bhutta, M. N., Chaudhry, M. R., and Chaudhry, A. H. (2005). Groundwater quality and availability in Pakistan. In Proceedings of the Seminar on Strategies to Address the Present and Future Water Quality Issues, Islamabad, Pakistan, Reference no. 36058280, 36, 15–36.
  • Bouchard, M. F., Sauve, S., Barbeau, B., Legrand, M., Brodeur, M. E., Bouffard, T., and Mergler, D. (2011). Intellectual impairment in school-age children exposed to manganese from drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119, 138–143.
  • Brahman, K. D., Kazi, T. G., Afridi, H. I., Naseem, S., Arain, S. S., and Ullah, N. (2013). Evaluation of high levels of fluoride, arsenic species and other physicochemical parameters in underground water of two sub districts of Tharparkar, Pakistan: A multivariate study. Water Research, 47, 1005–1020.
  • Butt, I., and Iqbal, A. (2007). Solid waste management and associated environmental issues in Lahore. Pakistan Geographical Review, 62, 45–50.
  • Caliman, F. A., and Gavrilescu, M. (2009). Pharmaceuticals, personal care products and endocrine disrupting agents in the environment—A review. Clean-Soil, Air, Water, 37, 277–303.
  • CDC. (2005). Third National report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. Washington, DC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, retrived from; http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/thirdreport.pdf.
  • CDC/ACCLPP. (2012). Low level lead exposure harms children: A renewed call for primary prevention. Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning and Prevention. retrived from; http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ACCLPP/blood_lead_levels.htm.
  • Cefalu, W., and Hu, F. (2013). Role of chromium in human health and in diabetes. Diabetes Care, 27, 2741–2751.
  • Crossgrove, J., and Zheng, W. (2004). Manganese toxicity upon overexposure. NMR in Biomedicine, 17, 544–553.
  • Duda-Chodak, A., and Blaszczyk, U. (2008). The impact of nickel on human health. Journal of Elementology, 13, 685–693.
  • Durrani, I. H., Adnan, S., Ahmad, M., Khair, S. M., and Kakar, E. (2017). Observed Long-term climatic variability and its impacts on the ground water level of Quetta alluvial. Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions A: Science, 1–12. doi:10.1007/s40995-017-0235-8.
  • Ejaz, S., Akram, W., Lim, C. W., Lee, J. J., and Hussain, I. (2004). Endocrine disrupting pesticides: A leading cause of cancer among rural people in Pakistan. Experimental Oncology, 26, 98–105.
  • Ellervik, C., Mandrup-Poulsen, T., Nordestgaard, B. G., Larsen, L. E., Appleyard, M., Frandsen, M., and Tybjaerg-Hansen, A. (2001). Prevalence of hereditary haemochromatosis in late-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus: A retrospective study. The Lancet, 358, 1405–1409.
  • Eqani, S., Malik, R. N., Alamdar, A., and Faheem, H. (2012). Status of organochlorine contaminants in the different environmental compartments of Pakistan: A review on occurrence and levels. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88, 303–310.
  • Faheem, N., Sajjad, A., Mehmood, Z., Iqbal, F., Mahmood, Q., Munsif, S., and Waseem, A. (2015). The pesticide exposure through fruits and meat in Pakistan. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 24, 4555–4566.
  • Farid, M., Irshad, M., Fawad, M., Ali, Z., Eneji, A. E., Aurangzeb, N., and Ali, B. (2014). Effect of cyclic phytoremediation with different wetland plants on municipal wastewater. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 16, 572–581.
  • Farooq, S., Hashmi, I., Qazi, I. A., Qaiser, S., and Rasheed, S. (2008). Monitoring of coliforms and chlorine residual in water distribution network of Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 140, 339–347.
  • Farooq, S., Eqani, S. and Malik, R. N. (2011). Occurrence, finger printing and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Chenab River, Pakistan. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 3207–3215.
  • Farooqui, A., Khan, A., and Kazmi, S. U. (2009). Investigation of a community outbreak of typhoid fever associated with drinking water. BMC Public Health, 9, 476.
  • Farooqi, A., Masuda, H., and Firdous, N. (2007a). Toxic fluoride and arsenic contaminated groundwater in the Lahore and Kasur districts, Punjab, Pakistan and possible contaminant sources. Environmental Pollution, 145, 839–849.
  • Farooqi, A., Masuda, H., Kusakabe, M., Naseem, M., and Firdous, N. (2007b). Distribution of highly arsenic and fluoride contaminated groundwater from east Punjab, Pakistan, and the controlling role of anthropogenic pollutants in the natural hydrological cycle. Geochemical Journal, 41, 213–234.
  • Fatoki, O., and Awofolu, R. (2003). Levels of Cd, Hg and Zn in some surface waters from the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Water SA, 29, 375–380.
  • Fiedler, H. (2002). Persistent organic pollutants (vol. 3). Springer Science and Business Media, New York. ISSN 1433-6847.
  • Galic, N., Schmolke, A., Forbes, V., Baveco, H., and van den Brink, P. J. (2012). The role of ecological models in linking ecological risk assessment to ecosystem services in agroecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 415, 93–100.
  • Gavrilescu, M. (2009). Behaviour of persistent pollutants and risks associated with their presence in the environment–integrated studies. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 8, 1517–1531.
  • GoP. (1973). Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Agricultural Pesticide Rules 1973. Retrieved from http://punjablaws.punjab.gov.pk/public/dr/Agriculture%20Pesticides%20Rules%201973.doc.pdf.
  • Gundry, S., Wright, J., and Conroy, R. (2004). A systematic review of the health outcomes related to household water quality in developing countries. Journal of Water and Health, 2, 1–13.
  • Guzzella, L., Poma, G., De Paolis, A., Roscioli, C., and Viviano, G. (2011). Organic persistent toxic substances in soils, waters and sediments along an altitudinal gradient at Mt. Sagarmatha, Himalayas, Nepal. Environmental Pollution, 159, 2552–2564.
  • Hafeez, S., Mahmood, A., Syed, J. H., Li, J., Ali, U., Malik, R. N. and Zhang, G. (2016). Waste dumping sites as a potential source of POPs and associated health risks in perspective of current waste management practices in Lahore city, Pakistan. Science of the Total Environment, 562, 953–961.
  • Hamilton, P. A., and Helsel, D. R. (1995). Effects of agriculture on ground‐water quality in five regions of the United States. Ground Water, 33, 217–226.
  • Hannan, A., Shan, S., and Arshad, U. (2010). Bacteriological analysis of drinking water from 100 families of Lahore by membrane filtration technique and chromagar. Biomedica, 26, 152–156.
  • Hashmi, I., Farooq, S., and Qaiser, S. (2009a). Chlorination and water quality monitoring within a public drinking water supply in Rawalpindi Cantt (Westridge and Tench) area, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 158, 1–4.
  • Hashmi, I., Farooq, S., and Qaiser, S. (2009b). Incidence of fecal contamination within a public drinking water supply in Ratta Amral, Rawalpindi. Desalination and Water Treatment, 11, 124–131.
  • Hashmi, I., Qaiser, I., Asma, S., Khan, M. T. A., and Abbas, S. (2011). Assessing microbiological safety of drinking water: A case study of Islamabad, Pakistan. Proceedings of the Pakistan Engineering Congress, World Water Day.
  • Hayat, N., Hussain, A., and Yousaf, H. (2016). Food demand in Pakistan, Analysis and projections. South Asia Economic Journal, 7, 94–113.
  • Haydar, S., Haider, H., Nadeem, O., Hussain, G., Jalees, I., and Qadeer, A. (2014). Effect of Hudiara drain on the quality of groundwater in the housing schemes of Lahore. Journal of Faculty of Engineering and Technology, 21, 119–134.
  • Hering, J. G., Maag, S., and Schnoor, J. L. (2016). A call for synthesis of water research to achieve the sustainable development goals by 2030. Environmental Science and Technology, 50, 6122–6123.
  • Hussain, T., Roohi, A., Munir, S., Ahmed, I., Khan, J., Edel-Hermann, V., Kim K. Y., and Anees, M. (2013). Biochemical characterization and identification of bacterial strains isolated from drinking water sources of Kohat, Pakistan. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 7, 1579–1590.
  • Ilyas, A., and Sarwar, T. (2003). Study of trace elements in drinking water in the vicinity of Palosi drain, Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 6, 86–91.
  • IARC. (2012). Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts: A review of human carcinogens. International Agency for Research on Cancer Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, 100C. Retrieved from; http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C.pdf.
  • Iqbal, U., Qasim, H., Khan, A. K., Rashid, R., Nasreen, S., Mahmood, Q., and Khan, J. (2009). Surface and ground water quality risk assessment in district Attock Pakistan. World Applied Sciences Journal, 7, 1029–1036.
  • Iram, S., Ahmad, I., Ahad, K., Muhammad, A., and Anjum, S. (2009). Analysis of pesticides residues of Rawal and Simly lakes. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 41, 1981–1987.
  • Ishaque, W., and Shaikh, S. (2017). Water and energy security for Pakistan a retrospective analysis. Grassroots, 51(1), 90–100.
  • Islam, U., Cheema, W., and Ahmed, C. (2008). Multifaceted groundwater quality and recharge mechanism issues in a mega-city (Rawalpindi, Pakistan), and mitigation strategies. Securing Groundwater Quality in Urban and Industrial Environments, In The Proceedings of 6th International IAHS Groundwater Quality Conference, held in Fremantle, Western Australia, 2–7 December 2007, IAHS Publication no. XXX.
  • Jabbar, A., and Mallick, S. (1994). Pesticides and environment situation in Pakistan, Islamabad, Sustainable Development Policy Institute. Retrieved from; https://sdpi.org/publications/files/W19Pesticides%20and%20Environment%20Situation.pdf.
  • Jabbar, A., Masud, S. Z., Parveen, Z., and Ali, M. (1993). Pesticide residues in cropland soils and shallow groundwater in Punjab Pakistan. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 51, 268–273.
  • Jan, F. A., Ishaq, M., Ihsanullah, I., and Asim, S. M. (2009a). Multivariate statistical analysis of heavy metals pollution in industrial area and its comparison with relatively less polluted area: A case study from the City of Peshawar and district Dir Lower. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 176, 609–616.
  • Jan, M. R., Shah, J., Khawaja, M. A., and Gul, K. (2009b). DDT residue in soil and water in and around abandoned DDT manufacturing factory. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 155, 31–38.
  • Kahlown, M., and Majeed, A. (2003a). Water-resources situation in Pakistan: Challenges and future strategies. Water resources in the south: Present scenario and future prospects, Islamabad, Pakistan: Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South, 21–39.
  • Kahlown, M. A., Ashraf, M., and Yasin, M. (2003b). Water management for efficicent use of irrigation water and optimum crop production. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources. No. 3-2003. Islamabad. ISBN 969-8469-09-5.
  • Kahlown, M. A., and Majeed, A. (2005). Water resources situation in Pakistan: Challenges and future strategies. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources. No. 3, 33–45.
  • Kahlown, M. A., Raoof, A., Zubair, M., and Kemper, W. D. (2007). Water use efficiency and economic feasibility of growing rice and wheat with sprinkler irrigation in the Indus Basin of Pakistan. Agricultural Water Management, 87, 292–298.
  • Kamal, S. S. (2009). Use of water for agriculture in Pakistan: Experiences and challenges. Lincoln: Research and Economic Development, University of Nebraska. Retrieved from; http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?articleD1012&contextDresearchecondev.
  • Kavcar, P., Sofuoglu, A., and Sofuoglu, S. C. (2009). A health risk assessment for exposure to trace metals via drinking water ingestion pathway. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 212, 216–227.
  • Kausar, R., Ahmad, S., Rehman, K., and Ahmad, R. (2003). Fluoride status of underground water of Faisalabad city area. International Journal of Agriculture Biology, 5, 536–539.
  • Kawasaki, T., Delea, C. S., Bartter, F. C., and Smith, H. (1978). The effect of high-sodium and low-sodium intakes on blood pressure and other related variables in human subjects with idiopathic hypertension. The American Journal of Medicine, 64, 193–198.
  • Khan, A., Farooqui, A., and Kazmi, S. U. (2011). Presence of Helicobacter pylori in drinking water of Karachi, Pakistan. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 6, 251–255.
  • Khan, D. A., Bhatti, M. M., Khan, F. A., Naqvi, S. T., and Karam, A. (2008). Adverse effects of pesticides residues on biochemical markers in Pakistani tobacco farmers. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 1, 274–282.
  • Khan, F. A., Ali, J., Ullah, R., and Ayaz, S. (2014). Bacteriological quality assessment of drinking water available at the flood affected areas of Peshawar. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, 95, 1448–1454.
  • Khan, M., and Ahmad, S. (2012). Microbiological contamination in groundwater of Wah area. Pakistan Journal of Science, 64, 20–23.
  • Khan, N., Muller, J., Khan, S. H., Amjad, S., Nizamani, S., and Bhanger, M. I. (2010). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) contaminants in sediments from Karachi Harbour, Pakistan. Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 32, 542–549.
  • Khan, K., Lu, Y., Khan, H., Zakir, S., Khan, S., Khan, A. A., Wei, L., and Wang, T. (2013). Health risks associated with heavy metals in the drinking water of Swat, northern Pakistan. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 25, 2003–2013.
  • Khan, S., Haq, F., and Saeed, K. (2012). Pollution load in industrial effluent and ground water due to marble industries in District Buner, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 3, 366–368.
  • Khan, S., Shahnaz, M., Jehan, N., Rehman, S., Shah, M. T., and Din, I. (2013). Drinking water quality and human health risk in Charsadda district. Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 60, 93–101.
  • Khan, S., Rauf, R., Muhammad, S., Qasim, M., and Din, I. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metals health risk assessment through drinking water consumption in the Peshawar District, Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22, 581–596.
  • Laghari, A., Chandio, S. N., Khuhawar, M., Jahangir, T., and Laghari, S. (2004). Effect of wastewater on the quality of ground water from southern parts of Hyderabad city. Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved from http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=AV20120132655.
  • Li, D., and Wu, Z. (2008). Impact of chemical fertilizers application on soil ecological environment. The Journal of Applied Ecology/Zhongguo, 19, 1158–1165.
  • Li, Y., and Zhang, J. (1999). Agricultural diffuse pollution from fertilisers and pesticides in China. Water Science and Technology, 39, 25–32.
  • Lindqvist, O., and Rodhe, H. (1985). Atmospheric mercury-a review. Tellus, 37B, 136–159.
  • Lone, M., Saleem, S., Mahmood, T., Saifullah, K., and Hussain, G. (2003). Heavy metal contents of vegetables irrigated by sewage/tube-well water. International Journal of Agriculture Biology, 5, 533–535.
  • Mahar, M. T., Khuhawar, M. Y., Jahangir, T. M., and Baloch, M. A. (2013). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater: The effect of evaporation ponds of distillery spent wash. Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, 2, 166.
  • Mahmood, S., and Maqbool, A. (2006). Impacts of wastewater irrigation on water quality and on the health of local community in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Water Resources 10, 19–22.
  • Majumdar, D., and Gupta, N. (2000). Nitrate pollution of groundwater and associated human health disorders. Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 42, 28–39.
  • Malana, M. A., and Khosa, M. A. (2011). Groundwater pollution with special focus on arsenic, Dera Ghazi Khan-Pakistan. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 15, 39–47.
  • Martin, P., Nishida, J., Afzal, J., Akbar, S., Damania, R., and Hanrahan, D. (2006). Pakistan strategic country environmental assessment. South Asia Region, World Bank, 1.
  • Mashiatullah, A., Chaudhary, M., Khan, M., Javed, T., and Qureshi, R. (2010). Coliform bacterial pollution in Rawal lake, Islamabad and its feeding streams/river. Nucleus, 47, 35–40.
  • Mehmood, A., Mahmood, A., Eqani, S. A. M. A. S., Ishtiaq, M., Ashraf, A., Bibi, N., and Zhang, G. (2016). A review on emerging persistent organic pollutants: Current scenario in Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23, 1–13.
  • Memon, M., Soomro, M. S., Akhtar, M. S., and Memon, K. S. (2011). Drinking water quality assessment in Southern Sindh (Pakistan). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 177, 39–50.
  • Mian, Z., Ahmed, T., and Rashid, A. (1998). Accumulation of heavy metals in water of river Sawan due to effluents in industrial area. In Proceedings of Int. Sym. on Agro-Environmental issues and Future Strategies: Towards 21st Century. UA Faisalabad, Pakistan.
  • Midrar-Ul-Haq, K. R., and HajikanPunu, M. (2005). Surface and ground water contamination in NWFP and Sindh provinces with respect to trace elements. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 7, 214–217.
  • Milman, N., Pedersen, P., a, Steig, T., Byg, K. E., Graudal, N., and Fenger, K. (2001). Clinically overt hereditary hemochromatosis in Denmark 1948–1985: Epidemiology, factors of significance for long-term survival, and causes of death in 179 patients. Annals of Hematology, 80, 737–744.
  • MOE-PAK. (2005a). State of the environment report. (Draft). Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan, Ministry of Environment.
  • MOE-PAK. (2005b). National environmental policy. Govt. of Pakistan: Ministry of Environment.
  • MOE-PAK. (2006). National sanitation policy. Govt. of Pakistan: Ministry of Environment.
  • MOE-PAK. (2009). National drinking water policy. Govt. of Pakistan: Ministry of Environment.
  • Morales, K. H., Ryan, L., Kuo, T. L., Wu, M. M., and Chen, C. J. (2000). Risk of internal cancers from arsenic in drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108, 655.
  • Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., and Khan, S. (2011). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical Journal, 98, 334–343.
  • Mumtaz, M. W., Adnan, A., Mukhtar, H., Nawaz, K., Raza, K., and Ahmad, Z. (2011). Estimation of bacteriological levels in surface water samples to evaluate their contamination profile. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 172, 581–587.
  • Naeem, M., Khan, K., Rehman, S., and Iqbal, J. (2007). Environmental assessment of ground water quality of Lahore area, Punjab, Pakistan Journal of Applied Sciences, 7, 41–46.
  • Naseem, S., Rafique, T., Bashir, E., Bhanger, M. I., Laghari, A., and Usmani, T. H. (2010). Lithological influences on occurrence of high-fluoride groundwater in Nagar Parkar area, Thar Desert, Pakistan. Chemosphere, 78, 1313–1321.
  • Nasrullah, N. R., Bibi, H., Iqbal, M., and Durrani, M. I. (2006). Pollution load in industrial effluent and ground water of Gadoon Amazai Industrial Estate (GAIE) Swabi, NWFP. Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 1, 18–24.
  • Nguyen, V. A., Bang, S., Viet, P. H., and Kim, K. W. (2009). Contamination of groundwater and risk assessment for arsenic exposure in Ha Nam province, Vietnam. Environment International, 35, 466–472.
  • Nickson, R., McArthur, J., Shrestha, B., Kyaw-Myint, T., and Lowry, D. (2005). Arsenic and other drinking water quality issues, Muzaffargarh district, Pakistan. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 55–68.
  • Nordberg, G. F. (2004). Cadmium and health in the 21st century-historical remarks and trends for the future. Biometals, 17, 485–489.
  • NSDWQ-Pak. (2008). National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Health Services Academy, Ministry of Health, Government of Pakistan.
  • Oller, A. R., Costa, M., and Oberdorster, G. (1997). Carcinogenicity assessment of selected nickel compounds. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 143, 152–166.
  • PAK-EPA. (2005a). Investigation of drinking water quality of water filteration plants installed at Islamabad and Rawalpindi Pakistan. Environmental Protection Agency. Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad.
  • PAK-EPA. (2005b). Investigation of drinking water quality of water filteration plants installed at Islamabad and Rawalpindi Pakistan. Environmental Protection Agency. Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad.
  • Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance. (1983). Government of Pakistan, General Policy Support Pakistan Law.
  • Pakistan National Drinking Water Policy. (2009). Government of Pakistan, Policy document. retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.pk/act-rules/D_NATIONAL_DRINKING_WATER_POLICY.pdf
  • Parkkila, S., Niemela, O., Savolainen, E. R., and Koistinen, P. (2001). HFE mutations do not account for transfusional iron overload in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. Transfusion, 41, 828–831.
  • Parveen, Z., and Masud, S. (1988). Organochlorine pesticide residues in cattle drinking water. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 31, 53–56.
  • PCRWR. (2005). National Water Quality Monitoring Programme. Water Quality Report 2003–2004. Islamabad, Pakistan.
  • PCRWR. (2006). Annual report part 2. Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan Council for Research in Water Resources.
  • PCRWR. (2008a). National water monitoring programme 2002–6. Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources.
  • PCRWR. (2008b). Arsenic contamination in groundwater of central Sindh Phase I. Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan council for Research in Water Resources, 19–38. retrieved from http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/Arsenic_CS/ACS_TOC.htm.
  • PCRWR. (2012). Fifth water quality monitoring report 2005–06. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, 133.
  • PCRWR. (2017). Quarterly first report on bottles water quality in Pakistan January-March. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources. retrieved from http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/bottle.php.
  • Peijnenburg, W., Capri, E., Kula, C., Liess, M., Luttik, R., Montforts, M., and Jensen, J. (2012). Evaluation of exposure metrics for effect assessment of soil invertebrates. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 42, 1862–1893.
  • PEQs. (2016). Punjab Environmental Quality standards, Environmental protection Agency Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Qureshi, A. S. (2011). Water management in the Indus basin in Pakistan: Challenges and opportunities. Mountain Research and Development, 31, 252–260.
  • Qureshi, E. M. A., Khan, A. U., and Vehra, S. (2011). An investigation into the prevalence of water borne diseases in relation to microbial estimation of potable water in the community residing near River Ravi, Lahore, Pakistan. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 5, 595–607.
  • Rab, M. A., Bile, M. K., Mubarik, M. M., Asghar, H., Sami, Z., Siddiqi, S., and Burney, M. (1997). Water-borne hepatitis E virus epidemic in Islamabad, Pakistan: A common source outbreak traced to the malfunction of a modern water treatment plant. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 57, 151–157.
  • Rafique, T., Naseem, S., Bhanger, M. I., and Usmani, T. H. (2008). Fluoride ion contamination in the groundwater of Mithi sub-district, the Thar Desert, Pakistan. Environmental Geology, 56, 317–326.
  • Rahman, A., Lee, H., and Khan, M. (1997). Domestic water contamination in rapidly growing megacities of Asia: Case of Karachi, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 44, 339–360.
  • Rahman, M. M., Dong, Z., and Naidu, R. (2015). Concentrations of arsenic and other elements in groundwater of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India: Potential cancer risk. Chemosphere, 139, 54–64.
  • Rasheed, F., Khan, A., and Kazmi, S. (2009). Bacteriological analysis, antimicrobial susceptibility and detection of 16S rRNA gene of Helicobacter pylori by PCR in drinking water samples of earthquake affected areas and other parts of Pakistan. Malaysian Journal of Microbiology, 5, 123–127.
  • Rasool, A., Xiao, T., Farooqi, A., Shafeeque, M., Masood, S., Ali, S., and Nasim, W. (2016). Arsenic and heavy metal contaminations in the tube well water of Punjab, Pakistan and risk assessment: A case study. Ecological Engineering, 95, 90–100.
  • Raviraja, A., Babu, G., Bijoor, A., Menezes, G., and Venkatesh, T. (2008). Lead toxicity in a family as a result of occupational exposure. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 59, 127–133.
  • Raza, M., Farooqi, A., Niazi, N. K., and Ahmad, A. (2016). Geochemical control on spatial variability of fluoride concentrations in groundwater from rural areas of Gujrat in Punjab, Pakistan. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75, 1364.
  • Raza, N., Niazi, S. B., Sajid, M., Iqbal, F., and Ali, M. (2007). Studies on relationship between season and inorganic elements of Kallar Kahar Lake (Chakwal), Pakistan. Journal of Research (Science), Bahauddin Zakariya University, 18, 61–68.
  • Rehman, W., Zeb, A., Noor, N., and Nawaz, M. (2008). Heavy metal pollution assessment in various industries of Pakistan. Environmental Geology, 55, 353–358.
  • Reig, P., Maddocks, A., and Gassert, F. (2013). World's 36 most water-stressed countries. World Resources Institute December, 12.
  • Rossi, E. M., Gerhard, M. N. I., Zanella, M. S., Bogo, M., Scapin, D., and Oro, D. B. (2012). Assessment of microbiological quality of water wells in rural properties of the city of west of santa catarina, Brazil. Resources and Environment, 2, 164–168.
  • Saba, B., Hashmi, I., and Awan, M. A. (2012). Distribution, toxicity level, and concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface soil and groundwater of Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Desal Water Treat, 240–247.
  • Saddozai, A. A., Khalil, S., and Hameed, T. (2009). Microbial quality of food snacks and drinking water in Islamabad schools and colleges. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 22, 144–149.
  • Saeed, T. U., and Attaullah, H. (2014). Impact of extreme floods on groundwater quality (in Pakistan). British Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 4, 133–151.
  • Saleemi, M. (1993). Environmental assessment and management of irrigation and drainage scheme for sustainable agriculture growth. Lahore, Pakistan: EPA Bulletin, 64.
  • Salma, S., Rehman, S., and Shah, M. A. (2012). Rainfall trends in different climate zones of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Metreology, 9, 1–17.
  • Sanpera, C., Ruiz, X., Jover, L., Llorente, G., Jabeen, R., Muhammad, A., and Fasola, M. (2003). Persistent organic pollutants in little egret eggs from selected wetlands in Pakistan. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 44, 0360–0368.
  • Schaafer, R. B., vonderOhe, P. C., Rasmussen, J., Kefford, B. J., Beketov, M. A., Schulz, R., and Liess, M. (2012). Thresholds for the effects of pesticides on invertebrate communities and leaf breakdown in stream ecosystems. Environmental Science and Technology, 46, 5134–5142.
  • Schwarzenbach, R. P., Egli, T., Hofstetter, T. B., Gunten, U., and Wehrli, B. (2010). Global water pollution and human health. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 35, 109–136.
  • Shah, J. S., Ahmad, F., Ullah, A., Ali, Z., and Ali, N. (2013). Biochemical and Microbiological evaluation of the water samples collected from different areas of Swabi, Pakistan. International Journal of Advancements in Research and Technology, 2, 440–451.
  • Shah, M. T., and Danishwar, S. (2003). Potential fluoride contamination in the drinking water of Naranji area, northwest frontier province, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 25, 475–481.
  • Shakir, S. K., Azizullah, A., Murad, W., Daud, M. K., Nabeela, F., Rahman, H., and Hader, D. P. (2016). Toxic metal pollution in Pakistan and its possible risks to public health. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 242, 1–60.
  • Shakoor, M. B., Niazi, N. K., Bibi, I., Rahman, M. M., Naidu, R., Dong, Z., and Arshad, M. (2015). Unraveling health risk and speciation of arsenic from groundwater in rural areas of Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 12371–12390.
  • Shar, A. H., Kazi, Y. F., Zardari, M., and Soomro, I. H. (2007). Enumeration of total and faecal coliform bacteria in drinking water of Khairpur city. Bangladesh Journal of Microbiology, 24, 163–165.
  • Shar, A. H., Kazi, Y. F., and Soomro, I. H. (2008a). Impact of seasonal variation on bacteriological quality of drinking water. Bangladesh Journal of Microbiology, 25, 69–72.
  • Shar, A. H., Kazi, Y. F., Zardari, M., and Soomro, I. H. (2008b). Enumeration of total and fecal coliform bacteria in drinking water of Khairpur Sindh. Pakistan Journal of Medical Research 47, 18–21.
  • Shar, A. H., Kazi, Y. F., Kanhar, N. A., Soomro, I. H., Zia, S. M., and Ghumro, P. B. (2010). Drinking water quality in Rohri city, Sindh, Pakistan. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9, 7102–7107.
  • Shrestha, B. (2002). Drinking water quality: Future directions for UNICEF in Pakistan Consultancy Report 2 of 3. Islamabad: Water Quality, Sweet Project, UNICEF Pakistan.
  • Sial, R., Chaudhary, M., Abbas, S., Latif, M., and Khan, A. (2006). Quality of effluents from Hattar industrial estate. Journal of Zhejiang University Science, 7, 974–980.
  • Siddique, A., Mumtaz, M., Saied, S., Karim, Z., and Zaigham, N. A. (2006). Fluoride concentration in drinking water of Karachi city (Pakistan). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 120, 177–185.
  • Singh, R. P., Kumar, S., Nada, R., and Prasad, R. (2006). Evaluation of copper toxicity in isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and it's attenuation by zinc: Ex vivo. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 282, 13–21.
  • Smith, A. H., and Steinmaus, C. M. (2009). Health effects of arsenic and chromium in drinking water: Recent human findings. Annual Review of Public Health, 30, 107–122.
  • Soomro, M., Khokhar, M., Hussain, W., and Hussain, M. (2011). Drinking water quality challenges in Pakistan. Lahore: Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, 17–28.
  • Tahir, M. A., Chandio, B. A., Abdullah, M., and Rashid, A. (1998). Drinking water quality monitoring in the rural areas of Rawalpindi. Paper presented at the National Workshop on Quality of Drinking Water.
  • Sultana, J., Farooqi, A., and Ali, U. (2014). Arsenic concentration variability, health risk assessment, and source identification using multivariate analysis in selected villages of public water system, Lahore, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186, 1241–1251.
  • Tanveer, T., A. Hameed, A. G., Muazzam, S. Y., Jung, A., and Matin, A. (2013). Isolation and molecular characterization of potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba genotypes from diverse water resources including household drinking water from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Parasitology Research, 112, 2925–2932.
  • Tariq M. I., Afzal S, and Hussain I. (2004). Pesticides in shallow watertable areas of Bahawalnagar, Muzafargarh, D. G. Khan and Rajan Pur districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Environment International, 30, 471–479.
  • Tariq, M., Ali, M., and Shah, Z. (2006). Characteristics of industrial effluents and their possible impacts on quality of underground water. Soil & Environment, 25, 64–69.
  • Tariq, M. I., Afzal, S., Hussain, I., and Sultana, N. (2007). Pesticides exposure in Pakistan: A review. Environment International, 33, 1107–1122.
  • Tariq, S. R., Shah, M. H., Shaheen, N., Jaffar, M., and Khalique, A. (2008). Statistical source identification of metals in groundwater exposed to industrial contamination. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 138, 159–165.
  • Trumbo, P., Yates, A. A., Schlicker, S., and Poos, M. (2001). Dietary reference intakes: Vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101, 294–301.
  • Ullah, R., Malik, R. N., and Qadir, A. (2009). Assessment of groundwater contamination in an industrial city, Sialkot, Pakistan. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 3, 1–12.
  • Umar, M., Waseem, A., Sabir, M. A., Kassi, A. M., and Khan, A. S. (2013). The impact of geology of recharge areas on groundwater quality: A case study of Zhob River basin, Pakistan. Clean–Soil, Air, Water, 41, 119–127.
  • Umar, M., Waseem, A., Kassi, A. M., Farooq, M., Sabir, M. A., and Faridullah. (2014). Surface and subsurface water quality assessment in semi-arid region: A case study from Quetta and Sorange Intermontane Valleys, Pakistan. Global Nest Journal, 16, 938–954.
  • UNESCO. (2003). Water for people water for life. The United Nations world water development report. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Berghahn Books.
  • United Nations (UN). (2010). The millennium development goals report 2010, New York: United Nations.
  • United Nations (UN). (2015). World water development report. World Water Assessment Program.
  • USEPA. (1998). Arsenic, inorganic. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), ( CASRN 7440-38-2). http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0278.htm.
  • USEPA. (2004). Drinking water health advisory for manganese; United States Environmental Protection Agency, Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Washington, DC 20460.
  • USEPA. (2009). Drinking water standards and health advisories table.
  • USGS. (2016). The world's water. U.S. department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html.
  • Valentin, L., Nousiainen, A., and Mikkonen, A. (2013). Introduction to organic contaminants in soil: Concepts and risks. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 24, 1–29.
  • Vernay, P., Gauthier-Moussard, C., and Hitmi, A. (2007). Interaction of bioaccumulation of heavy metal chromium with water relation, mineral nutrition and photosynthesis in developed leaves of Lolium perenne L. Chemosphere, 68, 1563–1575.
  • Waalkes, M. P., Rehm, S., Riggs, C. W., Bare, R. M., Devor, D. E., and Poirier, L. A. (1988). Cadmium carcinogenesis in male Wistar rats: Dose-response analysis of tumor induction in the prostate and testes and at the injection site. Cancer Research, 48, 46–56.
  • Waqas, H., Shan, A., Khan, Y. G., Nawaz, R., Rizwan, M., Rehman, S. U., and Jabeen, M. (2017). Human health risk assessment of arsenic in groundwater aquifers of Lahore, Pakistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2017.1288561.
  • Ward, M. H., Mark, S. D., Cantor, K. P., Weisenburger, D. D., Correa-Villasenor, A., and Zahm, S. H. (1996). Drinking water nitrate and the risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Epidemiology, 7, 465–471.
  • Waseem, A., Arshad, J., Iqbal, F., Sajjad, A., Mehmood, Z., and Murtaza, G. (2014). Pollution status of Pakistan: A retrospective review on heavy metal contamination of water, soil, and vegetables. BioMed Research International, 29. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/813206.
  • Waseem, A., and Arshad, J. (2016). A review of Human Biomonitoring studies of trace elements in Pakistan. Chemosphere, 163, 153–176.
  • WB-CWRAS. (2005). Pakistan country water resources assistance strategy water economy: Running dry, 34081-PK. Agriculture and Rural Development Unit, World Bank.
  • WB-SCEA. (2006). Pakistan strategic country environmental assessment main report. Report no. 36946-PK. World Bank, 1–66.
  • WHO. (1994). Fluorides and oral health: Report of the WHO expert committee on oral health status and fluoride use. World Health Organization, 846.
  • WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th ed. World Health Organization Chronicle, 38, 104–108.
  • WHO, and UNISEF. (2000). Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000 report. USA: World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2000.pdf.
  • WWF. (2007). Pakistan's water at risk, water and health related issues and key recommendations. Freshwater & Toxics Programme, Communications Division, WWF Pakistan.
  • Yi, A. X., Leung, K. M., Lam, M. H., Lee, J. S., and Giesy, J. P. (2012). Review of measured concentrations of triphenyltin compounds in marine ecosystems and meta-analysis of their risks to humans and the environment. Chemosphere, 89, 1015–1025.
  • Zhang, G., Chakraborty, P., Li, J., Sampathkumar, P., Balasubramanian, T., Kathiresan, K., and Jones, K. C. (2008). Passive atmospheric sampling of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in urban, rural, and wetland sites along the coastal length of India. Environmental Science and Technology, 42, 8218–8223.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.