Advances and future directions of biochar characterization methods and applications

References

• Abdel-Fattah, T. M., Mahmoud, M. E., Ahmed, S. B., Huff, M. D., Lee, J. W., and Kumar, S. (2015). Biochar from woody biomass for removing metal contaminants and carbon sequestration. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 22, 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2014.06.030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdullah, H., and Wu, H. (2009). Biochar as a fuel: 1. Properties and grindability of biochars produced from the pyrolysis of mallee wood under slow-heating conditions. Energy & Fuels, 23, 4174–4181. doi:10.1021/ef900494t
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abid, M., Niazi, N. K., Bibi, I., Farooqi, A., Ok, Y. S., Kunhikrishnan, A., Ali, F., Ali, S., Igalavithana, A. D., and Arshad, M. (2016). Arsenic(V) biosorption by charred orange peel in aqueous environments. Int. J. Phytorem., 18, 442–449. doi:10.1080/15226514.2015.1109604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu El-Rub, Z., Bramer, E. A., and Brem, G. (2008). Experimental comparison of biomass chars with other catalysts for tar reduction. Fuel, 87, 2243–2252. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Lee, S. S., Dou, X., Mohan, D., Sung, J. K., Yang, J. E., and Ok, Y. S. (2012a). Effects of pyrolysis temperature on soybean stover- and peanut shell-derived biochar properties and TCE adsorption in water. Bioresour. Technol., 118, 536–544. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Lee, S. S., Oh, S. E., Mohan, D., Moon, D. H., Lee, Y. H., and Ok, Y. S. (2013a). Modeling adsorption kinetics of trichloroethylene onto biochars derived from soybean stover and peanut shell wastes. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 20, 8364–8373. doi:10.1007/s11356-013-1676-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Lee, S. S., Rajapaksha, A. U., Vithanage, M., Zhang, M., Cho, J. S., Lee, S. E., and Ok, Y. S. (2013b). Trichloroethylene adsorption by pine needle biochars produced at various pyrolysis temperatures. Bioresour. Technol., 143, 615–622. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.06.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Moon, D. H., Vithanage, M., Koutsospyros, A., Lee, S. S., Yang, J. E., Lee, S. E., Jeon, C., and Ok, Y. S. (2014a). Production and use of biochar from buffalo-weed (Ambrosia trifida L.) for trichloroethylene removal from water. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 89, 150–157. doi:10.1002/jctb.4157
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Ok, Y. S., Rajapaksha, A. U., Lim, J. E., Kim, B. Y., Ahn, J. H., Lee, Y. H., Al-Wabel, M. I., Lee, S. E., and Lee, S. S. (2016). Lead and copper immobilization in a shooting range soil using soybean stover- and pine needle-derived biochars: Chemical, microbial and spectroscopic assessments. J. Hazard. Mater., 301, 179–186. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.08.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Rajapaksha, A. U., Lim, J. E., Zhang, M., Bolan, N., Mohan, D., Vithanage, M., Lee, S. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2014b). Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: A review. Chemosphere, 99, 19–33. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad, M., Soo Lee, S., Yang, J. E., Ro, H. M., Han Lee, Y., and Sik Ok, Y. (2012b). Effects of soil dilution and amendments (mussel shell, cow bone, and biochar) on Pb availability and phytotoxicity in military shooting range soil. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 79, 225–231. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahn, S. Y., Eom, S. Y., Rhie, Y. H., Sung, Y. M., Moon, C. E., Choi, G. M., and Kim, D. J. (2013). Utilization of wood biomass char in a direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC) system. Appl. Energy, 105, 207–216. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.01.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Wabel, M. I., Al-Omran, A., El-Naggar, A. H., Nadeem, M., and Usman, A. R. A. (2013). Pyrolysis temperature induced changes in characteristics and chemical composition of biochar produced from conocarpus wastes. Bioresour. Technol., 131, 374–379. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.12.165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexis, M. A., Rasse, D. P., Rumpel, C., Bardoux, G., Péchot, N., Schmalzer, P., Drake, B., and Mariotti, A. (2007). Fire impact on C and N losses and charcoal production in a scrub oak ecosystem. Biogeochemistry, 82, 201–216. doi:10.1007/s10533-006-9063-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almaroai, Y. A., Usman, A. R. A., Ahmad, M., Moon, D. H., Cho, J. S., Joo, Y. K., Jeon, C., Lee, S. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2014). Effects of biochar, cow bone, and eggshell on Pb availability to maize in contaminated soil irrigated with saline water. Environ. Earth Sci., 71, 1289–1296. doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2533-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, C. R., Condron, L. M., Clough, T. J., Fiers, M., Stewart, A., Hill, R. A., and Sherlock, R. R. (2011). Biochar induced soil microbial community change: Implications for biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. Pedobiologia (Jena), 54, 309–320. doi:10.1016/j.pedobi.2011.07.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angın, D. (2013). Effect of pyrolysis temperature and heating rate on biochar obtained from pyrolysis of safflower seed press cake. Bioresour. Technol., 128, 593–597. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.10.150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ascough, P. L., Bird, M. I., Scott, A. C., Collinson, M. E., Cohen-Ofri, I., Snape, C. E., and Le Manquais, K. (2010). Charcoal reflectance measurements: implications for structural characterization and assessment of diagenetic alteration. J. Archaeol. Sci., 37, 1590–1599. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.01.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASTM D1762-84. (2013). ASTM D1762 – 84(2013) standard test method for chemical analysis of wood charcoal [WWW Document]. URL https://www.astm.org/Standards/D1762.htm (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D3174-12. (n.d.). ASTM D3174 – 12 Standard test method for ash in the analysis sample of coal and coke from coal [WWW Document]. URL https://www.astm.org/Standards/D3174.htm (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D3175-11. (n.d.). ASTM D3175 – 11 Standard test method for volatile matter in the analysis sample of coal and coke [WWW Document]. URL https://www.astm.org/Standards/D3175.htm (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D422-63. (1998). Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils [WWW Document]. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, PA. URL https://www.astm.org/DATABASE.CART/HISTORICAL/D422-63R98.htm (accessed 1.17.17).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D4607-94. (2006). ASTM D4607 – 94(2006) Standard test method for determination of iodine number of activated carbon [WWW Document]. Stand. Test method determ. Iodine number act. Carbon, ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, PA. URL www.astm.org (accessed 1.17.17).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D5142 – 04. (2004). ASTM D5142 – 04 Standard test methods for proximate analysis of the analysis sample of coal and coke by instrumental procedures [WWW Document]. URL https://www.astm.org/DATABASE.CART/HISTORICAL/D5142-04.htm (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• ASTM D6556-10. (2010). ASTM D6556-10, Standard test method for carbon black-total and external surface area by nitrogen adsorption [WWW Document]. ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, PA. URL www.astm.org (accessed 1.17.17).
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson, C. J., Fitzgerald, J. D., and Hipps, N. A. (2010). Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review. Plant Soil, 337, 1–18. doi:10.1007/s11104-010-0464-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awad, Y. M., Blagodatskaya, E., Ok, Y. S., and Kuzyakov, Y. (2012). Effects of polyacrylamide, biopolymer, and biochar on decomposition of soil organic matter and plant residues as determined by 14C and enzyme activities. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 48, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2011.09.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayodele, A., Oguntunde, P., Joseph, A., Dias Junior, M., and de, S. (2009). Numerical analysis of the impact of charcoal production on soil hydrological behavior, runoff response and erosion susceptibility. Rev. Bras. Ciência do Solo, 33, 137–146. doi:10.1590/S0100-06832009000100015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bair, D. A., Mukome, F. N. D., Popova, I. E., Ogunyoku, T. A., Jefferson, A., Wang, D., Hafner, S. C., Young, T. M., and Parikh, S. J. (2016). Sorption of pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, and herbicides to biochar in the presence of biosolids. J. Environ. Qual., 45, 1998. doi:10.2134/jeq2016.03.0106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basri, N. H., Deraman, M., Kanwal, S., Talib, I. A., Manjunatha, J. G., Aziz, A. A., and Farma, R. (2013). Supercapacitors using binderless composite monolith electrodes from carbon nanotubes and pre-carbonized biomass residues. Biomass and Bioenergy, 59, 370–379. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.08.035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beesley, L., and Marmiroli, M. (2011). The immobilisation and retention of soluble arsenic, cadmium and zinc by biochar. Environ. Pollut., 159, 474–480. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begaudeau, K., Morizet, Y., Florian, P., Paris, M., and Mercier, J. C. (2012). Solid-state NMR analysis of Fe-bearing minerals: Implications and applications for Earth sciences. Eur. J. Mineral., 24, 535–550. doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2012/0024-2192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betts, A. R., Chen, N., Hamilton, J. G., Peak, D. (2013). Rates and mechanisms of Zn2+ adsorption on a meat and bonemeal biochar. Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 14350–14357. doi:10.1021/es4032198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhandari, P. N., Kumar, A., Bellmer, D. D., and Huhnke, R. L. (2014). Synthesis and evaluation of biochar-derived catalysts for removal of toluene (model tar) from biomass-generated producer gas. Renew. Energy, 66, 346–353. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjeoumikhov, A., Langhoff, N., Rabe, J., Wedell, R. (2004). A modular system for XRF and XRD applications consisting of a microfocus X-ray source and different capillary optics. X-Ray Spectrom., 33, 312–316. doi:10.1002/xrs.733
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Böehm, H. P. (1994). Some aspects of the surface chemistry of carbon blacks and other carbons. Carbon N. Y., 32, 759–769. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(94)90031-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, C. E., Chuang, V. J., Masiello, C. A., Gonnermann, H., Gao, X., Dugan, B., Driver, L. E., Panzacchi, P., Zygourakis, K., and Davies, C. A. (2014). New approaches to measuring biochar density and porosity. Biomass and Bioenergy, 66, 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.03.059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, C. E., Schmidt-Rohr, K., Satrio, J. A., and Brown, R. C. (2009). Characterization of biochar from fast pyrolysis and gasification systems. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy, 28, 386–396. doi:10.1002/ep.10378
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, C. E., Unger, R., Schmidt-Rohr, K., and Brown, R. C. (2011). Criteria to select biochars for field studies based on biochar chemical properties. BioEnergy Res., 4, 312–323. doi:10.1007/s12155-011-9133-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. (2009). Biochar production technology, In: Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. (Eds.), Environmental management: Science and technology. (pp. 127–139). Earthscan, London.
   Google Scholar
• Bruun, S., Jensen, E. S., and Jensen, L. S. (2008). Microbial mineralization and assimilation of black carbon: Dependency on degree of thermal alteration. Org. Geochem., 39, 839–845. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.04.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budai, A., Zimmerman, A. R., Cowie, A. L., Webber, J. B. W., Singh, B. P., Glaser, B., Masiello, C. A., Andersson, D., Shields, F., and Lehmann, J. (2013). Biochar carbon stability test method: An assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability. [WWW Document]. Int. Biochar Initiat. URL http://www.biochar-international.org/sites/default/files/IBI_Report_Biochar_Stability_Test_Method_Final.pdf (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Busch, D., Stark, A., Kammann, C. I., and Glaser, B. (2013). Genotoxic and phytotoxic risk assessment of fresh and treated hydrochar from hydrothermal carbonization compared to biochar from pyrolysis. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 97, 59–66. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cançado, L. G., Jorio, A., and Pimenta, M. A. (2007). Measuring the absolute Raman cross section of nanographites as a function of laser energy and crystallite size. Phys. Rev. B., 76, 64304. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.76.064304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrier, M., Joubert, J. E., Danje, S., Hugo, T., Görgens, J., and Knoetze, J. H. (2013). Impact of the lignocellulosic material on fast pyrolysis yields and product quality. Bioresour. Technol., 150, 129–138. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.09.134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle, J. E. (1990). Practical surface analysis by Auger and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 2nd ed, Surface and Interface Analysis. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Cheah, S., Malone, S. C., and Feik, C. J. (2014). Speciation of sulfur in biochar produced from pyrolysis and gasification of oak and corn stover. Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 8474–8480. doi:10.1021/es500073r
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chia, C. H., Gong, B., Joseph, S. D., Marjo, C. E., Munroe, P., and Rich, A. M. (2012). Imaging of mineral-enriched biochar by FTIR, Raman and SEM–EDX. Vib. Spectrosc., 62, 248–257. doi:10.1016/j.vibspec.2012.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chintala, R., Clay, D. E., Schumacher, T. E., Malo, D. D., and Julson, J. L. (2013). Optimization of oxygen parameters for determination of Carbon and Nitrogen in biochar materials. Anal. Lett., 46, 532–538. doi:10.1080/00032719.2012.721103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chintala, R., Schumacher, T. E., McDonald, L. M., Clay, D. E., Malo, D. D., Papiernik, S. K., Clay, S. A., and Julson, J. L. (2014). Phosphorus sorption and availability from biochars and soil/biochar mixtures. CLEAN – Soil, Air, Water, 42, 626–634. doi:10.1002/clen.201300089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choung, S. W., Um, W. Y., Kim, M. Y., and Kim, M. G. (2013). Uptake mechanism for iodine species to black Carbon. Environ. Sci. Technol., 130827075129003. doi:10.1021/es401570a
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clough, T. J., Bertram, J. E., Ray, J. L., Condron, L. M., O'Callaghan, M., Sherlock, R. R., and Wells, N. S. (2010). Unweathered wood biochar impact on nitrous oxide emissions from a bovine-urine-amended pasture soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 74, 852. doi:10.2136/sssaj2009.0185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, O., Bhattacharyya, D., Hui, D., and Lau, K.-T. (2016). Mechanical and flammability characterisations of biochar/polypropylene biocomposites. Compos. Part B Eng., 106, 120–128. doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.09.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jonge, H., and Mittelmeijer-Hazeleger, M. C. (1996). Adsorption of CO2 and N2 on Soil organic matter: Nature of porosity, surface area, and diffusion mechanisms. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30, 408–413. doi:10.1021/es950043t
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean, J. A. (1999). Lange's handbook of chemistry. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Dehkhoda, A. M., West, A. H., and Ellis, N. (2010). Biochar based solid acid catalyst for biodiesel production. Appl. Catal. A Gen., 382, 197–204. doi:10.1016/j.apcata.2010.04.051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dincer, I., Midilli, A., and Kucuk, H. (2014). Progress in exergy, energy, and the environment. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04681-5
   Google Scholar
• Dong, D., Feng, Q., McGrouther, K., Yang, M., Wang, H., and Wu, W. (2015). Effects of biochar amendment on rice growth and nitrogen retention in a waterlogged paddy field. J. Soils Sediments, 15, 153–162. doi:10.1007/s11368-014-0984-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doumer, M. E., Arízaga, G. G. C., Silva, D.A. da, Yamamoto, C. I., Novotny, E. H., Santos, J. M., Santos, L.O. dos, Wisniewski, A., Andrade, J.B. de, and Mangrich, A. S. (2015). Slow pyrolysis of different Brazilian waste biomasses as sources of soil conditioners and energy, and for environmental protection. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 113, 434–443. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.03.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enders, A., Hanley, K., Whitman, T., Joseph, S., and Lehmann, J. (2012). Characterization of biochars to evaluate recalcitrance and agronomic performance. Bioresour. Technol., 114, 644–653. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang, Y., Singh, B., Singh, B. P., and Krull, E. (2014). Biochar carbon stability in four contrasting soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 65, 60–71. doi:10.1111/ejss.12094
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farma, R., Deraman, M., Awitdrus, A., Talib, I. A., Taer, E., Basri, N. H., Manjunatha, J. G., Ishak, M. M., Dollah, B. N. M., and Hashmi, S. A. (2013). Preparation of highly porous binderless activated carbon electrodes from fibres of oil palm empty fruit bunches for application in supercapacitors. Bioresour. Technol., 132, 254–261. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.01.044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fellet, G., Marmiroli, M., and Marchiol, L. (2014). Elements uptake by metal accumulator species grown on mine tailings amended with three types of biochar. Sci. Total Environ., 468–469, 598–608. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.08.072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganesh, K., and Jambeck, J. R. (2013). Treatment of landfill leachate using microbial fuel cells: Alternative anodes and semi-continuous operation. Bioresour. Technol., 139, 383–387. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaskin, J. W., Steiner, C., Harris, K., Das, K. C., and Bibens, B. (2008). Effect of low-temperature pyrolysis conditions on biochar for agricultural use. Trans. ASABE, 51, 2061–2069. doi:10.13031/2013.25409
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genovese, M., Jiang, J., Lian, K., and Holm, N. (2015). High capacitive performance of exfoliated biochar nanosheets from biomass waste corn cob. J. Mater. Chem. A, 3, 2903–2913. doi:10.1039/C4TA06110A
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerlach, A., and Schmidt, H. P. (2012). The use of biochar in cattle farming. Ithaka Journal [WWW Document]. URL http://www.ithaka-journal.net/pflanzenkohle-in-der-rinderhaltung?lang=en (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Ghani, W.A.W.A.K., Mohd, A., da Silva, G., Bachmann, R. T., Taufiq-Yap, Y. H., Rashid, U., and Al-Muhtaseb, A. H. (2013). Biochar production from waste rubber-wood-sawdust and its potential use in C sequestration: Chemical and physical characterization. Ind. Crops Prod., 44, 18–24. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.10.017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, B., Parr, M., Braun, C., and Kopolo, G. (2009). Biochar is carbon negative. Nat. Geosci., 2, 2–2. doi:10.1038/ngeo395
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goertzen, S. L., Thériault, K. D., Oickle, A. M., Tarasuk, A. C., and Andreas, H. A. (2010). Standardization of the Boehm titration. Part I. CO2 expulsion and endpoint determination. Carbon N. Y., 48, 1252–1261. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2009.11.050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman, P. A., Li, H., Gao, Y., Lu, Y. F., Stenger-Smith, J. D., and Redepenning, J. (2013). Preparation and characterization of high surface area, high porosity carbon monoliths from pyrolyzed bovine bone and their performance as supercapacitor electrodes. Carbon N. Y., 55, 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2012.12.066
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, E. (2006). A neotropical framework for Terra Preta, In: Balée W, E. C. (Ed.), Time and complexity in historical ecology: Studies in the Neotropical Lowlands (pp. 57–86). Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Güereña, D., Lehmann, J., Hanley, K., Enders, A., Hyland, C., and Riha, S. (2013). Nitrogen dynamics following field application of biochar in a temperate North American maize-based production system. Plant Soil, 365, 239–254. doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1383-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gul, S., Whalen, J. K., Thomas, B. W., Sachdeva, V., and Deng, H. (2015). Physico-chemical properties and microbial responses in biochar-amended soils: Mechanisms and future directions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 206, 46–59. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2015.03.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, R. K., Dubey, M., Kharel, P., Gu, Z., and Fan, Q. H. (2015). Biochar activated by oxygen plasma for supercapacitors. J. Power Sources, 274, 1300–1305. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.169
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale, L., Luth, M., and Crowley, D. (2015). Biochar characteristics relate to its utility as an alternative soil inoculum carrier to peat and vermiculite. Soil Biol. Biochem., 81, 228–235. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale, L., Luth, M., Kenney, R., and Crowley, D. (2014). Evaluation of pinewood biochar as a carrier of bacterial strain Enterobacter cloacae UW5 for soil inoculation. Appl. Soil Ecol., 84, 192–199. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2014.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale, S., Hanley, K., Lehmann, J., Zimmerman, A., and Cornelissen, G. (2011). Effects of chemical, biological, and physical aging as well as soil addition on the sorption of pyrene to activated Carbon and Biochar. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 10445–10453. doi:10.1021/es202970x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale, S. E., Lehmann, J., Rutherford, D., Zimmerman, A. R., Bachmann, R. T., Shitumbanuma, V., O'Toole, A., Sundqvist, K. L., Arp, H. P. H., and Cornelissen, G. (2012). Quantifying the total and bioavailable polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and Dioxins in Biochars. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 2830–2838. doi:10.1021/es203984k
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamer, U., Marschner, B., Brodowski, S., and Amelung, W. (2004). Interactive priming of black carbon and glucose mineralisation. Org. Geochem., 35, 823–830. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hans-Peter, S. S. A. (2013). European biochar certificate -guidelines for a sustainable production of biochar. European Biochar Found [WWW Document]. URL http://www.bio-inspecta.ch/htm/dl_detail.htm?sprache=e&id=105&p=3 (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Hansen, V., Müller-Stöver, D., Ahrenfeldt, J., Holm, J. K., Henriksen, U. B., and Hauggaard-Nielsen, H. (2015). Gasification biochar as a valuable by-product for carbon sequestration and soil amendment. Biomass and Bioenergy, 72, 300–308. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.10.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heymann, K., Lehmann, J., Solomon, D., Schmidt, M. W. I., and Regier, T. (2011). C 1s K-edge near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy for characterizing functional group chemistry of black carbon. Org. Geochem., 42, 1055–1064. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2011.06.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hmid, A., Mondelli, D., Fiore, S., Fanizzi, F. P., Al Chami, Z., and Dumontet, S. (2014). Production and characterization of biochar from three-phase olive mill waste through slow pyrolysis. Biomass and Bioenergy, 71, 330–339. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.09.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hossain, M. K., Strezov, V., Chan, K. Y., Ziolkowski, A., and Nelson, P. F. (2011). Influence of pyrolysis temperature on production and nutrient properties of wastewater sludge biochar. J. Environ. Manage., 92, 223–228. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hossain, M. K., Strezov, V., Yin Chan, K., and Nelson, P. F. (2010). Agronomic properties of wastewater sludge biochar and bioavailability of metals in production of cherry tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Chemosphere, 78, 1167–1171. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huggins, T., Latorre, A., Biffinger, J., and Ren, Z. (2016). Biochar based microbial fuel cell for enhanced wastewater treatment and nutrient recovery. Sustainability, 8, 169. doi:10.3390/su8020169
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huggins, T. M., Pietron, J. J., Wang, H., Ren, Z. J., and Biffinger, J. C. (2015). Graphitic biochar as a cathode electrocatalyst support for microbial fuel cells. Bioresour. Technol., 195, 147–153. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2015.06.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain, M., Farooq, M., Nawaz, A., Al-Sadi, A. M., Solaiman, Z. M., Alghamdi, S. S., Ammara, U., Ok, Y. S., and Siddique, K. H. M. (2016). Biochar for crop production: Potential benefits and risks. J. Soils Sediments, 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11368-016-1360-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBI. (2015). Standardized product definition and product testing guidelines for biochar: That is used in soil [WWW Document]. URL http://www.biochar-international.org/sites/default/files/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf. (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, A., Usman, A. R. A., Al-Wabel, M. I., Nadeem, M., Ok, Y. S., and Al-Omran, A. (2017). Effects of conocarpus biochar on hydraulic properties of calcareous sandy soil: influence of particle size and application depth. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci., 63, 185–197. doi:10.1080/03650340.2016.1193785
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Igalavithana, A. D., Lee, S. E., Lee, Y. H., Tsang, D. C. W., Rinklebe, J., Kwon, E. E., and Ok, Y. S. (2017). Heavy metal immobilization and microbial community abundance by vegetable waste and pine cone biochar of agricultural soils. Chemosphere, 174, 593–603. doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Igalavithana, A. D., Ok, Y. S., Usman, A. R. A., Al-Wabel, M. I., Oleszczuk, P., and Lee, S. S. (2016). The effects of biochar amendment on soil fertility, In: Guo, M., He, Z., and Uchimiya, S. M. (Eds.), Agricultural and environmental applications of biochar: Advances and barriers. (pp. 123–144). Soil Science Society of America, Inc. doi:10.2136/sssaspecpub63.2014.0040
   Google Scholar
• Inyang, M., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., Zimmerman, A. R., Pullammanappallil, P., and Cao, X. (2012). Removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution by biochars derived from anaerobically digested biomass. Bioresour. Technol., 110, 50–56. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.01.072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inyang, M., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A., Zhang, M., and Chen, H. (2014). Synthesis, characterization, and dye sorption ability of carbon nanotube–biochar nanocomposites. Chem. Eng. J., 236, 39–46. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2013.09.074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inyang, M. I., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., Zimmerman, A., Mosa, A., Pullammanappallil, P., Ok, Y. S., and Cao, X. (2016). A review of biochar as a low-cost adsorbent for aqueous heavy metal removal. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 406–433. doi:10.1080/10643389.2015.1096880
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ippolito, J. A., Ducey, T. F., Cantrell, K. B., Novak, J. M., and Lentz, R. D. (2016). Designer, acidic biochar influences calcareous soil characteristics. Chemosphere, 142, 184–191. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.05.092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaafar, N. M., Clode, P. L., and Abbott, L. K. (2015). Soil microbial responses to biochars varying in particle size, surface and pore properties. Pedosphere, 25, 770–780. doi:10.1016/S1002-0160(15)30058-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamieson, T., Sager, E., and Guéguen, C. (2014). Characterization of biochar-derived dissolved organic matter using UV–visible absorption and excitation–emission fluorescence spectroscopies. Chemosphere, 103, 197–204. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.11.066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvis, J. M., Page-Dumroese, D. S., Anderson, N. M., Corilo, Y., and Rodgers, R. P. (2014). Characterization of fast pyrolysis products generated from several Western USA woody species. Energy & Fuels, 28, 6438–6446. doi:10.1021/ef501714j
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F. G. A., van der Velde, M., and Bastos, A. C. (2011). A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 144, 175–187. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2011.08.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang, J., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Holm, N., Rajagopalan, K., Chen, F., and Ma, S. (2013). Highly ordered macroporous woody biochar with ultra-high carbon content as supercapacitor electrodes. Electrochim. Acta., 113, 481–489. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin, H., Wang, X., Gu, Z., and Polin, J. (2013). Carbon materials from high ash biochar for supercapacitor and improvement of capacitance with HNO3 surface oxidation. J. Power Sources, 236, 285–292. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.02.088
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jindo, K., Suto, K., Matsumoto, K., García, C., Sonoki, T., and Sanchez-Monedero, M. A. (2012). Chemical and biochemical characterisation of biochar-blended composts prepared from poultry manure. Bioresour. Technol., 110, 396–404. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.01.120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorio, A., Ribeiro-Soares, J., Cançado, L. G., Falcão, N. P. S., Dos Santos, H. F., Baptista, D. L., Martins Ferreira, E. H., Archanjo, B. S., and Achete, C. A. (2012). Microscopy and spectroscopy analysis of carbon nanostructures in highly fertile Amazonian anthrosoils. Soil Tillage Res., 122, 61–66. doi:10.1016/j.still.2012.02.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph, S., Peacocke, C., Lehmann, J., and Munroe, P. (2009). Developing a biochar classification and test methods, In: Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for environmental management: Science and technology (pp. 107–112). London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, S., Pow, D., Dawson, K., Mitchell, D. R. G., Rawal, A., Hook, J., Taherymoosavi, S., Van Zwieten, L., Rust, J., Donne, S., Munroe, P., Pace, B., Graber, E., Thomas, T., Nielsen, S., Ye, J., Lin, Y., Pan, G., Li, L., and Solaiman, Z. M. (2015). Feeding biochar to cows: An innovative solution for improving soil fertility and farm productivity. Pedosphere, 25, 666–679. doi:10.1016/S1002-0160(15)30047-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaal, J., Schneider, M. P. W., and Schmidt, M. W. I. (2012). Rapid molecular screening of black carbon (biochar) thermosequences obtained from chestnut wood and rice straw: A pyrolysis-GC/MS study. Biomass and Bioenergy, 45, 115–129. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.05.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasozi, G. N., Zimmerman, A. R., Nkedi-Kizza, P., and Gao, B. (2010). Catechol and humic acid sorption onto a range of laboratory-produced black carbons (Biochars). Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 6189–6195. doi:10.1021/es1014423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kastner, J. R., Miller, J., Geller, D. P., Locklin, J., Keith, L. H., and Johnson, T. (2012). Catalytic esterification of fatty acids using solid acid catalysts generated from biochar and activated carbon. Catal. Today, 190, 122–132. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2012.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keiluweit, M., Nico, P. S., Johnson, M. G., and Kleber, M. (2010). Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black Carbon (Biochar). Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 1247–1253. doi:10.1021/es9031419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan, N., Clark, I., Sánchez-Monedero, M. A., Shea, S., Meier, S., and Bolan, N. (2014). Maturity indices in co-composting of chicken manure and sawdust with biochar. Bioresour. Technol., 168, 245–251. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.02.123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, W. K., Shim, T., Kim, Y. S., Hyun, S., Ryu, C., Park, Y. K., and Jung, J. (2013). Characterization of cadmium removal from aqueous solution by biochar produced from a giant Miscanthus at different pyrolytic temperatures. Bioresour. Technol., 138, 266–270. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.03.186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kizito, S., Wu, S., Kipkemoi Kirui, W., Lei, M., Lu, Q., Bah, H., and Dong, R. (2015). Evaluation of slow pyrolyzed wood and rice husks biochar for adsorption of ammonium nitrogen from piggery manure anaerobic digestate slurry. Sci. Total Environ., 505, 102–112. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.09.096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kothari, R., Tyagi, V. V., and Pathak, A. (2010). Waste-to-energy: A way from renewable energy sources to sustainable development. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 14, 3164–3170. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.05.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhlbusch, T. A. J., and Crutzen, P. J. (1995). Toward a global estimate of black carbon in residues of vegetation fires representing a sink of atmospheric CO2 and a source of O2. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 9, 491–501. doi:10.1029/95GB02742
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, D., and Pant, K. K. (2015). Production and characterization of biocrude and biochar obtained from non-edible de-oiled seed cakes hydrothermal conversion. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 115, 77–86. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.06.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuzyakov, Y., Bogomolova, I., and Glaser, B. (2014). Biochar stability in soil: Decomposition during eight years and transformation as assessed by compound-specific 14C analysis. Soil Biol. Biochem., 70, 229–236. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.12.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuzyakov, Y., Subbotina, I., Chen, H., Bogomolova, I., and Xu, X. (2009). Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14C labeling. Soil Biol. Biochem., 41, 210–219. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.10.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon, S., and Pignatello, J. J. (2005). Effect of natural organic substances on the surface and adsorptive properties of environmental black carbon (Char):  Pseudo pore blockage by model lipid components and its implications for N2-Probed surface properties of natural sorbents. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 7932–7939. doi:10.1021/ES050976H
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laird, D., Fleming, P., Wang, B., Horton, R., and Karlen, D. (2010). Biochar impact on nutrient leaching from a midwestern agricultural soil. Geoderma, 158, 436–442. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.05.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J. W., Kidder, M., Evans, B. R., Paik, S., Buchanan III, A. C., Garten, C. T., and Brown, R. C. (2010). Characterization of biochars produced from cornstovers for soil amendment. Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 7970–7974. doi:10.1021/es101337x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann, J., and Joseph, S. (2009). Biochar for environmental management: An introduction, In: Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. (Eds.), Biochar for environmental management: Science and technology (pp. 1–9). London.
   Google Scholar
• Lehmann, J., Liang, B., Solomon, D., Lerotic, M., Luizão, F., Kinyangi, J., Schäfer, T., Wirick, S., and Jacobsen, C. (2005). Near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy for mapping nano-scale distribution of organic carbon forms in soil: Application to black carbon particles. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19. doi:10.1029/2004GB002435
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehmann, J., Rillig, M. C., Thies, J., Masiello, C. A., Hockaday, W. C., and Crowley, D. (2011). Biochar effects on soil biota – A review. Soil Biol. Biochem., 43, 1812–1836. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.04.022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J., Lv, G., Bai, W., Liu, Q., Zhang, Y., and Song, J. (2014). Modification and use of biochar from wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) for nitrate and phosphate removal from water. Desalin. Water Treat., 1–13. doi:10.1080/19443994.2014.994104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, X., Shen, Q., Zhang, D., Mei, X., Ran, W., Xu, Y., Yu, G. (2013). Functional groups determine biochar properties (pH and EC) as studied by two-dimensional 13C NMR correlation spectroscopy. PLoS One, 8, e65949. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, B., Lehmann, J., Sohi, S. P., Thies, J. E., O'Neill, B., Trujillo, L., Gaunt, J., Solomon, D., Grossman, J., Neves, E. G., and Luizão, F. J. (2010). Black carbon affects the cycling of non-black carbon in soil. Org. Geochem., 41, 206–213. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2009.09.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lievens, C., Mourant, D., Gunawan, R., Hu, X., and Wang, Y. (2015). Organic compounds leached from fast pyrolysis mallee leaf and bark biochars. Chemosphere, 139, 659–664. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.11.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• lightsources.org. (2016). Light source facility information [WWW Document]. URL http://www.lightsources.org/light-source-facility-information (accessed 1.17.17).
   Google Scholar
• Lim, J. E., Moon, D. H., Kim, K. R., Yang, J. E., Lee, S. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2015). Heavy metal stabilization in soils using waste resources – A critical review. J. Appl. Biol. Chem., 58, 157–174. doi:10.3839/jabc.2015.027
   Google Scholar
• Lin, Y., Munroe, P., Joseph, S., Ziolkowski, A., van Zwieten, L., Kimber, S., and Rust, J. (2013). Chemical and structural analysis of enhanced biochars: Thermally treated mixtures of biochar, chicken litter, clay and minerals. Chemosphere, 91, 35–40. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.11.063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, M. C., Kong, L. Bin, Zhang, P., Luo, Y. C., and Kang, L. (2012). Porous wood carbon monolith for high-performance supercapacitors. Electrochim. Acta, 60, 443–448. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2011.11.100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, N., Charrua, A. B., Weng, C. H., Yuan, X., and Ding, F. (2015). Characterization of biochars derived from agriculture wastes and their adsorptive removal of atrazine from aqueous solution: A comparative study. Bioresour. Technol., 198, 55–62. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, W. J., Jiang, H., and Yu, H. Q. (2015). Development of biochar-based functional materials: Toward a sustainable platform carbon material. Chem. Rev., 115, 12251–12285. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, H., Zhang, W., Yang, Y., Huang, X., Wang, S., and Qiu, R. (2012). Relative distribution of Pb2+ sorption mechanisms by sludge-derived biochar. Water Res., 46, 854–862. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, K., Yang, X., Shen, J., Robinson, B., Huang, H., Liu, D., Bolan, N., Pei, J., and Wang, H. (2014). Effect of bamboo and rice straw biochars on the bioavailability of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn to Sedum plumbizincicola. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 191, 124–132. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2014.04.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandal, S., Sarkar, B., Bolan, N., Novak, J., Ok, Y. S., Van Zwieten, L., Singh, B. P., Kirkham, M. B., Choppala, G., Spokas, K., and Naidu, R. (2016a). Designing advanced biochar products for maximizing greenhouse gas mitigation potential. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 1367–1401. doi:10.1080/10643389.2016.1239975
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandal, S., Sarkar, B., Bolan, N., Ok, Y. S., and Naidu, R. (2017). Enhancement of chromate reduction in soils by surface modified biochar. J. Environ. Manage., 186, 277–284. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.05.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandal, S., Thangarajan, R., Bolan, N. S., Sarkar, B., Khan, N., Ok, Y. S., and Naidu, R. (2016b). Biochar-induced concomitant decrease in ammonia volatilization and increase in nitrogen use efficiency by wheat. Chemosphere, 142, 120–127. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manikandan, A., and Subramanian, K. S. (2013). Urea Intercalated Biochar–a Slow Release Fertilizer Production and Characterisation. Indian J. Sci. Technol., 6, 5579–5584. doi:10.17485/IJST/2013/V6I12/43619
   Google Scholar
• Manyà, J. J. (2012). Pyrolysis for biochar purposes: A review to establish current knowledge gaps and research needs. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 7939–7954. doi:10.1021/es301029g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao, J. D., Johnson, R. L., Lehmann, J., Olk, D. C., Neves, E. G., Thompson, M. L., and Schmidt-Rohr, K. (2012). Abundant and stable char residues in soils: Implications for soil fertility and carbon sequestration. Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 9571–9576. doi:10.1021/es301107c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, S. L., Clarke, M. L., Othman, M., Ramsden, S. J., and West, H. M. (2015). Biochar-mediated reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from soil amended with anaerobic digestates. Biomass and Bioenergy, 79, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.04.030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez-Hernandez, A., Velasco-Santos, C., and Castano, V. (2010). Carbon nanotubes composites: Processing, grafting and mechanical and thermal properties. Curr. Nanosci., 6, 12–39. doi:10.2174/157341310790226270
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McHenry, M. P. (2010). Carbon-based stock feed additives: a research methodology that explores ecologically delivered C biosequestration, alongside live weights, feed use efficiency, soil nutrient retention, and perennial fodder plantations. J. Sci. Food Agric., 90, 183–187. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, H., Anderson, P. S., Shields, F. E., and Reed, T. B. (2009). All Biochars are not created equal, and how to tell them apart, in: Version 2 (October 2009), which supercedes the digital reprint issued at the North American biochar conference, boulder, CO – August 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Melligan, F., Dussan, K., Auccaise, R., Novotny, E. H., Leahy, J. J., Hayes, M. H. B., and Kwapinski, W. (2012). Characterisation of the products from pyrolysis of residues after acid hydrolysis of Miscanthus. Bioresour. Technol., 108, 258–263. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, S., Glaser, B., Quicker, P. (2011). Technical, economical, and climate-related aspects of biochar production technologies: A literature review. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 9473–9483. doi:10.1021/es201792c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Micháleková-Richveisová, B., Frišták, V., Pipíška, M., Ďuriška, L., Moreno-Jimenez, E., and Soja, G. (2017). Iron-impregnated biochars as effective phosphate sorption materials. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 24, 463–475. doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7820-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mimmo, T., Panzacchi, P., Baratieri, M., Davies, C. A., and Tonon, G. (2014). Effect of pyrolysis temperature on miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus) biochar physical, chemical and functional properties. Biomass and Bioenergy, 62, 149–157. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan, D., Sarswat, A., Ok, Y. S., and Pittman, C. U. (2014). Organic and inorganic contaminants removal from water with biochar, a renewable, low cost and sustainable adsorbent – A critical review. Bioresour. Technol., 160, 191–202. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan, D., Sharma, R., Singh, V. K., Steele, P., and Pittman, C. U. (2012). Fluoride removal from water using bio-char, a green waste, low-cost adsorbent: Equilibrium uptake and sorption dynamics modeling. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 51, 900–914. doi:10.1021/ie202189v
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon, D. H., Park, J. W., Chang, Y. Y., Ok, Y. S., Lee, S. S., Ahmad, M., Koutsospyros, A., Park, J. H., and Baek, K. (2013). Immobilization of lead in contaminated firing range soil using biochar. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 20, 8464–8471. doi:10.1007/s11356-013-1964-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moussavi, G., and Khosravi, R. (2012). Preparation and characterization of a biochar from pistachio hull biomass and its catalytic potential for ozonation of water recalcitrant contaminants. Bioresour. Technol., 119, 66–71. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukherjee, A., and Lal, R. (2014). The biochar dilemma. Soil Res., 52, 217–230. doi:10.1071/SR13359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukome, F. N. D., Kilcoyne, A. L. D., and Parikh, S. J. (2014). Alteration of biochar carbon chemistry during soil incubations: SR-FTIR and NEXAFS investigation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 78, 1632. doi:10.2136/sssaj2014.05.0206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukome, F. N. D., and Parikh, S. J. (2015). Chemical, physical, and surface characterization of biochar, In: Ok, Y. S., Uchimiya, S. M., Chang, S. X., and Bolan, N. (Eds.), Production, characterization, and applications. (pp. 67–96). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mukome, F. N. D., Zhang, X., Silva, L. C. R., Six, J., and Parikh, S. J. (2013). Use of chemical and physical characteristics to investigate trends in biochar feedstocks. J. Agric. Food Chem., 61, 2196–2204. doi:10.1021/jf3049142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulcahy, D. N., Mulcahy, D. L., and Dietz, D. (2013). Biochar soil amendment increases tomato seedling resistance to drought in sandy soils. J. Arid Environ., 88, 222–225. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.07.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanda, S., Mohanty, P., Pant, K. K., Naik, S., Kozinski, J. A., and Dalai, A. K. (2013). Characterization of North American lignocellulosic biomass and biochars in terms of their candidacy for alternate renewable fuels. BioEnergy Res., 6, 663–677. doi:10.1007/s12155-012-9281-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelissen, V., Saha, B. K., Ruysschaert, G., and Boeckx, P. (2014). Effect of different biochar and fertilizer types on N2O and NO emissions. Soil Biol. Biochem., 70, 244–255. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.12.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neves, E. G., and Petersen, J. B. (2006). Political economy and pre-Columbian landscape transformations in Central Amazonia, In: Balée, W. and Erickson, C. L. (Eds.), Time and complexity in historical ecology: studies in the neotropical lowlands (pp. 279–309). New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Novak, J. M., Busscher, W. J., Watts, D. W., Laird, D. A., Ahmedna, M. A., and Niandou, M. A. S. (2010). Short-term CO2 mineralization after additions of biochar and switchgrass to a Typic Kandiudult. Geoderma, 154, 281–288. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.10.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak, J. M., Lima, I., Xing, B., Gaskin, J. W., Steiner, C., Das, K. C., Ahmedna, M., Rehrah, D., Watts, D. W., Busscher, W. J., and Schomberg, H. (2009). Characterization of designer biochar produced at different temperatures and their effects on a loamy Sand. Ann. Environ. Sci., 3, 195–206.
   Google Scholar
• Ogawa, M., Okimori, Y., Takahashi, F. (2006). Carbon sequestration by carbonization of biomass and forestation: Three case studies. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 11, 421–436. doi:10.1007/s11027-005-9007-4
   Google Scholar
• Ok, Y. S., Chang, S. X., Gao, B., and Chung, H. J. (2015). SMART biochar technology-A shifting paradigm towards advanced materials and healthcare research. Environ. Technol. Innov., 4, 206–209. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2015.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oleszczuk, P., Jośko, I., and Kuśmierz, M. (2013). Biochar properties regarding to contaminants content and ecotoxicological assessment. J. Hazard. Mater., 260, 375–382. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.05.044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parikh, S. J., Goyne, K. W., Margenot, A. J., Mukome, F. N. D., and Calderón, F. J. (2014). Chapter one – soil chemical insights provided through vibrational spectroscopy. Adv. Agron., 126, 1–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J. H., Kim, S. H., Cho, J. S., Heo, J. S., Delaune, R. D., and Seo, D. C. (2016). Competitive adsorption of heavy metals onto sesame straw biochar in aqueous solutions. Chemosphere, 142, 77–83. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.05.093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J. H., Ok, Y. S., Kim, S. H., Kang, S. W., Cho, J. S., Heo, J. S., Delaune, R. D., and Seo, D. C. (2015). Characteristics of biochars derived from fruit tree pruning wastes and their effects on lead adsorption. J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol. Chem., 58, 751–760. doi:10.1007/s13765-015-0103-1
   Google Scholar
• Pastor-Villegas, J., Pastor-Valle, J. F., Rodríguez, J. M. M., and García, M. G. (2006). Study of commercial wood charcoals for the preparation of carbon adsorbents. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 76, 103–108. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2005.08.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pastor-Villegas, J., Valenzuela-Calahorro, C., Bernalte-Garcia, A., and Gomez-Serrano, V. (1993). Characterization study of char and activated carbon prepared from raw and extracted rockrose. Carbon N. Y., 31, 1061–1069. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(93)90057-H
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietikainen, J., Kiikkila, O., and Fritze, H. (2000). Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus. Oikos, 89, 231–242. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.890203.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pituello, C., Francioso, O., Simonetti, G., Pisi, A., Torreggiani, A., Berti, A., and Morari, F. (2015). Characterization of chemical–physical, structural and morphological properties of biochars from biowastes produced at different temperatures. J. Soils Sediments, 15, 792–804. doi:10.1007/s11368-014-0964-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qian, K., Kumar, A., Zhang, H., Bellmer, D., and Huhnke, R. (2015). Recent advances in utilization of biochar. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 42, 1055–1064. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapaksha, A. U., Ahmad, M., Vithanage, M., Kim, K. R., Chang, J. Y., Lee, S. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2015). The role of biochar, natural iron oxides, and nanomaterials as soil amendments for immobilizing metals in shooting range soil. Environ. Geochem. Health, 37, 931–942. doi:10.1007/s10653-015-9694-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapaksha, A. U., Chen, S. S., Tsang, D. C. W., Zhang, M., Vithanage, M., Mandal, S., Gao, B., Bolan, N. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2016). Engineered/designer biochar for contaminant removal/immobilization from soil and water: Potential and implication of biochar modification. Chemosphere, 148, 276–291. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.01.043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajapaksha, A. U., Vithanage, M., Zhang, M., Ahmad, M., Mohan, D., Chang, S. X., and Ok, Y. S. (2014). Pyrolysis condition affected sulfamethazine sorption by tea waste biochars. Bioresour. Technol., 166, 303–308. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.05.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajkovich, S., Enders, A., Hanley, K., Hyland, C., Zimmerman, A. R., and Lehmann, J. (2012). Corn growth and nitrogen nutrition after additions of biochars with varying properties to a temperate soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 48, 271–284. doi:10.1007/s00374-011-0624-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizwan, M., Ali, S., Qayyum, M. F., Ibrahim, M., Zia-ur-Rehman, M., Abbas, T., and Ok, Y. S. (2016). Mechanisms of biochar-mediated alleviation of toxicity of trace elements in plants: A critical review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 23, 2230–2248. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5697-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronsse, F., van Hecke, S., Dickinson, D., and Prins, W. (2013). Production and characterization of slow pyrolysis biochar: influence of feedstock type and pyrolysis conditions. GCB Bioenergy, 5, 104–115. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12018
   Google Scholar
• Rutherford, D. W., Wershaw, R. L., Rostad, C. E., and Kelly, C. N. (2012). Effect of formation conditions on biochars: Compositional and structural properties of cellulose, lignin, and pine biochars. Biomass and Bioenergy, 46, 693–701. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.06.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saikia, R., Chutia, R. S., Kataki, R., and Pant, K. K. (2015). Perennial grass (Arundo donax L.) as a feedstock for thermo-chemical conversion to energy and materials. Bioresour. Technol., 188, 265–272. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2015.01.089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salame, I. I., and Bandosz, T. J. (2001). Surface chemistry of activated carbons: Combining the results of temperature-programmed desorption, boehm, and potentiometric titrations. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 240, 252–258. doi:10.1006/jcis.2001.7596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahkarami, S., Azargohar, R., Dalai, A. K., and Soltan, J. (2015). Breakthrough CO2 adsorption in bio-based activated carbons. J. Environ. Sci., 34, 68–76. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2015.03.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, Y., Linville, J. L., Ignacio-de Leon, P. A. A., Schoene, R. P., and Urgun-Demirtas, M. (2016). Towards a sustainable paradigm of waste-to-energy process: Enhanced anaerobic digestion of sludge with woody biochar. J. Clean. Prod., 135, 1054–1064. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.144
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shneour, E. A. (1966). Oxidation of graphitic carbon in certain soils. Science, 151, 991–992. doi:10.1126/science.151.3713.991
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigmund, G., Hüffer, T., Hofmann, T., and Kah, M. (2016). Biochar total surface area and total pore volume determined by N2 and CO2 physisorption are strongly influenced by degassing temperature. Sci. Total Environ., doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, B. P., Hatton, B. J., Balwant, S., Cowie, A. L., and Kathuria, A. (2010). Influence of biochars on nitrous oxide emission and nitrogen leaching from two contrasting soils. J. Environ. Qual., 39, 1224–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. R., Sleighter, R. L., Hatcher, P. G., and Lee, J. W. (2013). Molecular characterization of inhibiting biochar water-extractable substances using electrospray ionization fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 13294–13302. doi:10.1021/es4034777
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorrenti, G., Masiello, C. A., Dugan, B., and Toselli, M. (2016). Biochar physico-chemical properties as affected by environmental exposure. Sci. Total Environ., 563, 237–246. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spokas, K. A., Cantrell, K. B., Novak, J. M., Archer, D. W., Ippolito, J. A., Collins, H. P., Boateng, A. A., Lima, I. M., Lamb, M. C., McAloon, A. J., Lentz, R. D., and Nichols, K. A. (2012). Biochar: A synthesis of its agronomic impact beyond carbon sequestration. J. Environ. Qual., 41, 973. doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spokas, K. A., Novak, J. M., Stewart, C. E., Cantrell, K. B., Uchimiya, M., DuSaire, M. G., and Ro, K. S. (2011). Qualitative analysis of volatile organic compounds on biochar. Chemosphere, 85, 869–882. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.06.108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spokas, K. A., and Reicosky, D. C. (2009). Impacts of sixteen different biochars on soil greenhouse gas production. Ann. Environ. Sci., 3.
   Google Scholar
• Srinivasan, P., Sarmah, A. K., Smernik, R., Das, O., Farid, M., and Gao, W. (2015). A feasibility study of agricultural and sewage biomass as biochar, bioenergy and biocomposite feedstock: Production, characterization and potential applications. Sci. Total Environ., 512, 495–505. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefaniuk, M., and Oleszczuk, P. (2015). Characterization of biochars produced from residues from biogas production. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 115, 157–165. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.07.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner, C., Das, K. C., Melear, N., and Lakly, D. (2010). Reducing nitrogen loss during poultry litter composting using biochar. J. Environ. Qual., 39, 1236–1242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner, C., Teixeira, W. G., Lehmann, J., and Zech, W. (2004). Microbial response to charcoal amendments of highly weathered soils and amazonian dark earths in central amazonia — preliminary results, in: amazonian dark earths: explorations in space and time (pp. 195–212). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-05683-7_15
   Google Scholar
• Sun, L., Wan, S., and Luo, W. (2013). Biochars prepared from anaerobic digestion residue, palm bark, and eucalyptus for adsorption of cationic methylene blue dye: Characterization, equilibrium, and kinetic studies. Bioresour. Technol., 140, 406–413. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunyoto, N. M. S., Zhu, M., Zhang, Z., and Zhang, D. (2016). Effect of biochar addition on hydrogen and methane production in two-phase anaerobic digestion of aqueous carbohydrates food waste. Bioresour. Technol., 219, 29–36. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.07.089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsechansky, L., and Graber, E. R. (2014). Methodological limitations to determining acidic groups at biochar surfaces via the Boehm titration. Carbon N. Y., 66, 730–733. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2013.09.044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UC Davis Biochar Database. (2015). UC davis biochar database [WWW Document]. URL http://biochar.ucdavis.edu/download/ (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Uchimiya, M., Lima, I. M., Klasson, K. T., and Wartelle, L. H. (2010). Contaminant immobilization and nutrient release by biochar soil amendment: Roles of natural organic matter. Chemosphere, 80, 935–940. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.05.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchimiya, S. M. (2015). Biochar production technology: An overview, In: Ok, Y. S., Uchimiya, S. M., Chang, S. X., and Bolan, N. (Eds.), Biochar production, characterization and applications (pp. 45–65). Broken Sound Parkway NW: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• USDA. (2015). USDA, soil survey technical note 8 [WWW Document]. URL https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_053575 (accessed 12.25.16).
   Google Scholar
• Usman, A. R. A., Abduljabbar, A., Vithanage, M., Ok, Y. S., Ahmad, M., Ahmad, M., Elfaki, J., Abdulazeem, S. S., and Al-Wabel, M. I. (2015). Biochar production from date palm waste: Charring temperature induced changes in composition and surface chemistry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 115, 392–400. doi:10.1016/j.jaap.2015.08.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Zwieten, L., Kimber, S., Morris, S., Downie, A., Berger, E., Rust, J., and Scheer, C. (2010). Influence of biochars on flux of N2O and CO2 from Ferrosol. Aust. J. Soil Res., 48, 555. doi:10.1071/SR10004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vithanage, M., Mayakaduwa, S. S., Herath, I., Ok, Y. S., and Mohan, D. (2016). Kinetics, thermodynamics and mechanistic studies of carbofuran removal using biochars from tea waste and rice husks. Chemosphere, 150, 781–789. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vithanage, M., Rajapaksha, A. U., Ahmad, M., Uchimiya, M., Dou, X., Alessi, D. S., and Ok, Y. S. (2015). Mechanisms of antimony adsorption onto soybean stover-derived biochar in aqueous solutions. J. Environ. Manage., 151, 443–449. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vithanage, M., Rajapaksha, A. U., Tang, X., Thiele-Bruhn, S., Kim, K. H., Lee, S.-E., and Ok, Y. S. (2014). Sorption and transport of sulfamethazine in agricultural soils amended with invasive-plant-derived biochar. J. Environ. Manage., 141, 95–103. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.02.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, A., Kaupenjohann, M., Hu, Y., Kruse, J., and Leinweber, P. (2015). Biochar-induced formation of Zn-P-phases in former sewage field soils studied by P K-edge XANES spectroscopy. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci., 178, 582–585. doi:10.1002/jpln.201400601
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, D., Yuan, W., and Ji, W. (2011). Char and char-supported nickel catalysts for secondary syngas cleanup and conditioning. Appl. Energy, 88, 1656–1663. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.11.041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Lin, Y., Chiu, P. C., Imhoff, P. T., and Guo, M. (2015). Phosphorus release behaviors of poultry litter biochar as a soil amendment. Sci. Total Environ., 512, 454–463. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Z., Zheng, H., Luo, Y., Deng, X., Herbert, S., and Xing, B. (2013). Characterization and influence of biochars on nitrous oxide emission from agricultural soil. Environ. Pollut., 174, 289–296. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2012.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardle, D. A., Nilsson, M. C., and Zackrisson, O. (2008). Fire-derived charcoal causes loss of Forest Humus. Science (80-.)., 320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells, H. C., Sizeland, K. H., Edmonds, R. L., Aitkenhead, W., Kappen, P., Glover, C., Johannessen, B., and Haverkamp, R. G. (2014). Stabilizing chromium from leather waste in Biochar. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 2, 1864–1870. doi:10.1021/sc500212r
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter, M., and Brodd, R. J. (2004). What are Batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors? Chem. Rev., 104, 4245–4270. doi:10.1021/CR020730K
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, H., Yip, K., Tian, F., Xie, Z., and Li, C. Z. (2009). Evolution of char structure during the steam gasification of biochars produced from the pyrolysis of various Mallee Biomass Components. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 48, 10431–10438. doi:10.1021/ie901025d
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, W., Yang, M., Feng, Q., McGrouther, K., Wang, H., Lu, H., and Chen, Y. (2012). Chemical characterization of rice straw-derived biochar for soil amendment. Biomass and Bioenergy, 47, 268–276. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.09.034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, G., Sun, J., Shao, H., and Chang, S. X. (2014). Biochar had effects on phosphorus sorption and desorption in three soils with differing acidity. Ecol. Eng., 62, 54–60. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.10.027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue, Y., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Inyang, M., Zhang, M., Zimmerman, A. R., and Ro, K. S. (2012). Hydrogen peroxide modification enhances the ability of biochar (hydrochar) produced from hydrothermal carbonization of peanut hull to remove aqueous heavy metals: Batch and column tests. Chem. Eng. J., 200, 673–680. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2012.06.116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan, Q., Wan, C., Liu, J., Gao, J., Yu, F., Zhang, J., and Cai, Z. (2013). Iron nanoparticles in situ encapsulated in biochar-based carbon as an effective catalyst for the conversion of biomass-derived syngas to liquid hydrocarbons. Green Chem., 15, 1631. doi:10.1039/c3gc37107g
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yanai, Y., Toyota, K., and Okazaki, M. (2007). Effects of charcoal addition on N2O emissions from soil resulting from rewetting air-dried soil in short-term laboratory experiments. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 53, 181–188. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0765.2007.00123.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, F. X., Arbestain, M. C., Virgel, S., Blanco, F., Arostegui, J., Maciá-Agulló, J. A., and Macías, F. (2010). Simulated geochemical weathering of a mineral ash-rich biochar in a modified Soxhlet reactor. Chemosphere, 80, 724–732. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.05.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, Y., Gao, B., Chen, J., and Yang, L. (2013a). Engineered biochar reclaiming phosphate from aqueous solutions: Mechanisms and potential application as a slow-release fertilizer. Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 8700–8708. doi:10.1021/es4012977
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, Y., Gao, B., Chen, J., Zhang, M., Inyang, M., Li, Y., Alva, A., and Yang, L. (2013b). Engineered carbon (biochar) prepared by direct pyrolysis of Mg-accumulated tomato tissues: Characterization and phosphate removal potential. Bioresour. Technol., 138, 8–13. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.03.057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, Y., Gao, B., Fang, J., Zhang, M., Chen, H., Zhou, Y., Creamer, A. E., Sun, Y., and Yang, L. (2014). Characterization and environmental applications of clay–biochar composites. Chem. Eng. J., 242, 136–143. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2013.12.062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, Y., Gao, B., Inyang, M., Zimmerman, A. R., Cao, X., Pullammanappallil, P., and Yang, L. (2011). Removal of phosphate from aqueous solution by biochar derived from anaerobically digested sugar beet tailings. J. Hazard. Mater., 190, 501–507. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.03.083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yargicoglu, E. N., Sadasivam, B. Y., Reddy, K. R., and Spokas, K. (2015). Physical and chemical characterization of waste wood derived biochars. Waste Manag., 36, 256–268. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2014.10.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yip, K., Wu, H., and Zhang, D. (2007). Effect of Inherent Moisture in Collie Coal during Pyrolysis Due to in-Situ Steam Gasification. Energy and Fuels, 21, 2883–2891. doi:10.1021/EF7002443
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, S., Zhou, Z., Li, J., Chen, X., and Wang, F. (2010). HCN and NH3 Released from biomass and soybean cake under rapid pyrolysis. Energy & Fuels, 24, 6166–6171. doi:10.1021/ef100959g
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, A., Cui, L., Pan, G., Li, L., Hussain, Q., Zhang, X., Zheng, J., and Crowley, D. (2010). Effect of biochar amendment on yield and methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a rice paddy from Tai Lake plain, China. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 139, 469–475. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.09.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M., and Gao, B. (2013). Removal of arsenic, methylene blue, and phosphate by biochar/AlOOH nanocomposite. Chem. Eng. J., 226, 286–292. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2013.04.077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M., Gao, B., Varnoosfaderani, S., Hebard, A., Yao, Y., and Inyang, M. (2013). Preparation and characterization of a novel magnetic biochar for arsenic removal. Bioresour. Technol., 130, 457–462. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2012.11.132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., and Inyang, M. (2012). Synthesis, characterization, and environmental implications of graphene-coated biochar. Sci. Total Environ., 435, 567–572. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.07.038
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, S., Huang, B., Ye, X. P., Shu, X., and Jia, X. (2014). Utilizing bio-char as a bio-modifier for asphalt cement: A sustainable application of bio-fuel by-product. Fuel, 133, 52–62. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2014.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, X., Ouyang, W., Hao, F., Lin, C., Wang, F., Han, S., and Geng, X. (2013). Properties comparison of biochars from corn straw with different pretreatment and sorption behaviour of atrazine. Bioresour. Technol., 147, 338–344. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.08.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Y., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A. R., Chen, H., Zhang, M., and Cao, X. (2014). Biochar-supported zerovalent iron for removal of various contaminants from aqueous solutions. Bioresour. Technol., 152, 538–542. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2013.11.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Y., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A. R., Fang, J., Sun, Y., and Cao, X. (2013). Sorption of heavy metals on chitosan-modified biochars and its biological effects. Chem. Eng. J., 231, 512–518. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2013.07.036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zielińska, A., and Oleszczuk, P. (2015). The conversion of sewage sludge into biochar reduces polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content and ecotoxicity but increases trace metal content. Biomass and Bioenergy, 75, 235–244. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.02.019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, A. R. (2010). Abiotic and Microbial Oxidation of Laboratory-Produced Black Carbon (Biochar). Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 1295–1301. doi:10.1021/es903140c
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar