A review of public and environmental consequences of organic germanium

References

• Arnorsson, S. (1984). Germanium in Icelandic geothermal systems. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 48(12), 2489–2502.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., & Fernandez Pereira, C. (2008). Hydrometallurgical recovery of germanium from coal gasification fly ash. solvent extraction method. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 47(9), 3186–3191. doi: 10.1021/ie7016948
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo, F., Font, O., Chimenos, J. M., Fernandez Pereira, C., Querol, X., & Coca, P. (2014). IGCC fly ash valorisation. Optimisation of Ge and Ga recovery for an industrial application. Fuel Processing Technology, 124, 222–227. doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo Torralvo, F., Fernandez Pereira, C., & Campanario, M. C. (2010). Recovery of germanium from aqueous solutions by ion-exchange extraction of its catechol complex. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 40(10), 4817–4823. doi: 10.1021/ie901020f
   Google Scholar
• Aso, H., Shibuya, E., Suzuki, F., Nakamura, T., Inoue, H., Ebina, T., & Ishida, N. (1985). Antitumor effect in mice of an organic germanium compound (Ge-132) when different administration methods are used. Gan to Kagaku Ryoho. Cancer & Chemotherapy, 12(12), 2345–2351.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aso, H., Suzuki, F., Yamagughi, T., Hayashi, Y., Ebina, T., & Ishida, N. (1985). Induction of interferon and activation of NK cells and macrophages in mice by oral administration of Ge-132, an organic germanium compound. Microbiology and Immunology, 29(1), 65–74. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1985.tb00803.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayres, J. (1997). Trends in air quality in the UK. Allergy, 52(38 Suppl), 7–13. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb04863.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ayres, R. U., Holmberg, J., & Andersson, B. (2001). Materials and the global environment: Waste mining in the 21st century. MRS Bulletin, 26(6), 477–480. doi: 10.1557/mrs2001.119
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedell, S. W., Shahrjerdi, D., Hekmatshoar, B., Fogel, K., Lauro, P. A., Ott, J. A., … Sadana, D. (2012). Kerf-less removal of Si, Ge, and III–V layers by controlled spalling to enable low-cost PV technologies. IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, 2(2), 141–147. doi: 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2012.2184267
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein, L. R. (1985). Germanium geochemistry and mineralogy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 49(11), 2409–2422. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(85)90241-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatia, M. R., & Crook, K. A. (1986). Trace element characteristics of graywackes and tectonic setting discrimination of sedimentary basins. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 92(2), 181–193. doi: 10.1007/BF00375292
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braman, R. S., & Tompkins, M. A. (1978). Atomic emission spectrometric determination of antimony, germanium, and methylgermanium compounds in the environment. Analytical Chemistry, 50(8), 1088–1093. doi: 10.1021/ac50030a021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brutkiewicz, R. R., & Suzuki, F. (1987). Biological activities and antitumor mechanism of an immunopotentiating organogermanium compound, Ge-132. In Vivo, 1(4), 189–203.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burger, C., Goerres, G., Schoenes, S., Buck, A., Lonn, A., & Von Schulthess, G. (2002). PET attenuation coefficients from CT images: Experimental evaluation of the transformation of CT into PET 511-keV attenuation coefficients. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 29(7), 922–927. doi: 10.1007/s00259-002-0796-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buriak, J. M. (2002). Organometallic chemistry on silicon and germanium surfaces. Chemical Reviews, 102(5), 1271–1308. doi: 10.1021/cr000064s
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton, J., Culkin, F., & Riley, J. (1959). The abundances of gallium and germanium in terrestrial materials. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 16(1–3), 151–180. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(59)90052-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, G., Aureau, D., Holmes, J. D., Etcheberry, A., & O'Dwyer, C. (2014). Germanium oxide removal by citric acid and thiol passivation from citric acid-terminated Ge(100)). Langmuir: The Acs Journal of Surfaces and Colloids, 30(47), 14123–14127. doi: 10.1021/la503819z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotton, F. A., & Wilkinson, G. (1988). Advanced inorganic chemistry. New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Cullen, G. V., & Siviour, N. G. (1982). Removing metals from waste solutions with low rank coals and related materials. Water Research, 16(8), 1357–1366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai, S., Seredin, V. V., Ward, C. R., Jiang, J., Hower, J. C., Song, X., … Zhao, C. (2014). Composition and modes of occurrence of minerals and elements in coal combustion products derived from high-Ge coals. International Journal of Coal Geology, 121, 79–97. doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2013.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai, S., Yan, X., Ward, C. R., Hower, J. C., Zhao, L., Wang, X., … Finkelman, R. B. (2018). Valuable elements in Chinese coals: A review. International Geology Review, 60(5–6), 590–620. doi: 10.1080/00206814.2016.1197802
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasch, E. J. (1996). Macmillan encyclopedia of earth sciences. New York, NJ: Macmillan Library Reference.
   Google Scholar
• Dobrzynski, D., Boguszewska Czubara, A., & Sugimori, K. (2018). Hydrogeochemical and biomedical insights into germanium potential of curative waters: A case study of health resorts in the Sudetes Mountains (Poland). Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 40(4), 1355–1375. doi: 10.1007/s10653-017-0061-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan, L. Q., Song, J. M., Yuan, H. M., Li, X. G., Li, N., & Ma, J. K. (2014). Distribution, chemical speciation and source of trace elements in surface sediments of the Changjiang Estuary. Environmental Earth Sciences, 72(8), 3193–3204. doi: 10.1007/s12665-014-3225-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espinoza Quinones, F. R., Fornari, M. M., Modenes, A. N., Palacio, S. M., Da Silva, F. G., Jr, Szymanski, N., … Trigueros, D. E. (2009). Pollutant removal from tannery effluent by electrocoagulation. Chemical Engineering Journal, 151(1–3), 59–65. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2009.01.043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faure, G. (1998). Principles and applications of geochemistry: A comprehensive textbook for geology students. New Jersey, United States, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Feng, X. F., & Jin, W. G. (2006). Advance in synthesis and physiological effect of Germanium compounds. Food Science and Technology, 31, 177–181.
   Google Scholar
• Font, O., Querol, X., Lopez Soler, A., Chimenos, J. M., Fernandez, A. I., Burgos, S., & Pena, F. G. (2005). Ge extraction from gasification fly ash. Fuel, 84(11), 1384–1392. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2004.06.041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fthenakis, V. (2009). Sustainability of photovoltaics: The case for thin-film solar cells. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(9), 2746–2750. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2009.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujimoto, M., Ishibashi, H., Shimamura, R., Takahashi, K., Hirata, Y., Kudo, J., … Miyata, K. (1992). A patient with liver cirrhosis manifesting various symptoms including cerebellar ataxia due to germanium intoxication. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi = Hukuoka Acta Medica, 83(3), 139–143.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fukazawa, H., Ohashi, Y., Sekiyama, S., Hoshi, H., Abe, M., Takahashi, M., & Sato, T. (1994). Multidisciplinary treatment of head and neck cancer using BCG, OK‐432, and GE‐132 as biologic response modifiers. Head & Neck, 16(1), 30–38. doi: 10.1002/hed.2880160108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geballe, T., & Hull, G. (1958). Isotopic and other types of thermal resistance in germanium. Physical Review, 110(3), 773. doi: 10.1103/PhysRev.110.773
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs, A. K. (1986). The continental crust: Its composition and evolution. The Journal of Geology, 94(4), 632–633. doi: 10.1086/629067
   Google Scholar
• Goerres, G. W., Ziegler, S. I., Burger, C., Berthold, T., von Schulthess, G. K., & Buck, A. (2003). Artifacts at PET and PET/CT caused by metallic hip prosthetic material. Radiology, 226(2), 577–584. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2262012141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman, S. (1988). Therapeutic effects of organic germanium. Medical Hypotheses, 26(3), 207–215. doi: 10.1016/0306-9877(88)90101-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, Y., Rowland, C. E., Schaller, R. D., & Vela, J. (2014). Near-infrared photoluminescence enhancement in Ge/CdS and Ge/ZnS core/shell nanocrystals: Utilizing IV/II–VI semiconductor epitaxy. Acs Nano, 8(8), 8334–8343. doi: 10.1021/nn502792m
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haller, E. (2006). Germanium: From its discovery to SiGe devices. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 9(4–5), 408–422. doi: 10.1016/j.mssp.2006.08.063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, E., & Minski, M. (1972). Comments upon the inorganic constituents present in DNA and RNA. Science of the Total Environment, 1(1), 104–107. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(72)90017-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hamilton, E., Minski, M., & Cleary, J. (1973). The concentration and distribution of some stable elements in healthy human tissues from the United Kingdom An environmental study. Science of the Total Environment, 1(4), 341–374. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(73)90024-7
   Google Scholar
• Hara, S., Hayashi, N., Hirano, S., Zhong, X. N., Yasuda, S., & Komae, H. (1990). Determination of germanium in some plants and animals. Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung. C, Journal of Biosciences, 45(11–12), 1250–1252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haynes, W. M. (2014). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. Boca Raton, NJ: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hernandez Exposito, A., Chimenos, J., Fernandez, A., Font, O., Querol, X., Coca, P., & Pena, F. G. (2006). Ion flotation of germanium from fly ash aqueous leachates. Chemical Engineering Journal, 118(1–2), 69–75. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hess, B., Raisin, J., Zimmermann, A., Horber, F., Bajo, S., Wyttenbach, A., & Jaeger, P. (1993). Tubulointerstitial nephropathy persisting 20 months after discontinuation of chronic intake of germanium lactate citrate. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 21(5), 548–552. doi: 10.1016/S0272-6386(12)80403-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higuchi, I., Takahashi, K., Nakahara, K., Izumo, S., Nakagawa, M., & Osame, M. (1991). Experimental germanium myopathy. Acta Neuropathologica, 82(1), 55–59. doi: 10.1007/bf00310923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirner, A., Gruter, U., & Kresimon, J. (2000). Metal (loid) organic compounds in contaminated soil. Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 368(2–3), 263–267. doi: 10.1007/s002160000451
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ikemoto, K., Kobayashi, M., Fukumoto, T., Morimatsu, M., Pollard, R. B., & Suzuki, F. (1996). 2-Carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide, a synthetic organogermanium compound, as an inducer of contrasuppressor T cells. Experientia, 52(2), 159–166. doi: 10.1007/BF01923363
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ishiwata, Y., Yokochi, S., Hashimoto, H., Ninomiya, F., & Suzuki, T. (1998). Protection against concanavalin a-induced murine liver injury by the organic germanium compound, propagermanium. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology, 48(6), 605–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansson, N. F., Malmstrom, L., Zetterqvist, A., & Allen, R. L. (2016). A comment on the occurrence of gallium and germanium in the Zinkgruvan Zn-Pb-Ag-(Cu) sulphide deposit, Bergslagen, Sweden. GFF, 138(4), 533–535. doi: 10.1080/11035897.2016.1165284
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kakimoto, N., Sato, K., Takada, T., & Akiba, M. (1987). Organo‐germanium compounds: Synthesis, structure, and properties of masked‐carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (GE‐132) and related compounds with one triethanolamine component. ChemInform, 18(31), 123–124. doi: 10.1002/chin.198731251
   Google Scholar
• Kamijo, M., Yagihashi, S., Kida, K., Narita, S., & Nakata, F. (1991). An autopsy case of chronic germanium intoxication presenting peripheral neuropathy, spinal ataxia, and chronic renal failure. Rinsho Shinkeigaku = Clinical Neurology, 31(2), 191–196.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kanematsu, N., & Kada, T. (1978). Mutagenicity of metal compounds. Mutation Research/Environmental Mutagenesis and Related Subjects, 54(2), 215–216. doi: 10.1016/0165-1161(78)90054-7
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan, B. J., Parish, W. W., Andrus, G. M., Simpson, J. S. A., & Field, C. J. (2004). Germane facts about germanium sesquioxide: Chemistry and anticancer properties. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(2), 337–344. doi: 10.1089/107555304323062329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith, L. S., Faroon, O. M., Maples Reynolds, N., & Fowler, B. A. (2015). Germanium. Handbook on the toxicology of metals (pp. 799–816). Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, K., Lim, C., Kim, S., Kim, S., Park, J., Ahn, C., … Lee, H. (1998). Nephropathy and neuropathy induced by a germanium-containing compound. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 13(12), 3218–3219. doi: 10.1093/ndt/13.12.3218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krapf, R., Schaffner, T., & Iten, P. X. (1992). Abuse of germanium associated with fatal lactic acidosis. Nephron, 62(3), 351–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraus, C. A., & Brown, C. L. (1930). Studies relating to organic germanium derivatives. IV. diphenyl germanium and octaphenyl germanopropane. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 52(10), 4031–4035. doi: 10.1021/ja01373a040
   Google Scholar
• Kumano, N., Ishikawa, T., Koinumaru, S., Kikumoto, T., Suzuki, S., Nakai, Y., & Konno, K. (1985). Antitumor effect of the organogermanium compound Ge-132 on the Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL) in C57BL/6 (B6) mice. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 146(1), 97–104. doi: 10.1620/tjem.146.97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz, A. C., Derry, L. A., & Chadwick, O. A. (2002). Germanium-silicon fractionation in the weathering environment. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 66(9), 1525–1537. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(01)00869-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanming, W. (1999). Introduction of the geological feature and explorating of wulantuga germanium deposit inxilinguole league, inner mongolia. Geology of Inner Mangolia, 3, 15–20.
   Google Scholar
• Le Heron, J., Padovani, R., Smith, I., & Czarwinski, R. (2010). Radiation protection of medical staff. European Journal of Radiology, 76(1), 20–23. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2010.06.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J.-S., Park, J.-I., Kim, S.-H., Lee, H.-Y., Hwang, Z.-Z., Park, C.-B., … Kim, Y.-B. (2004). Oral single nd repeated ose toxicity studies on geranti Bio-Ge yeast®, organic germanium fortified yeasts, in dogs. The Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 29(5), 555–569. doi: 10.2131/jts.29.555
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee, S. H., Oh, K. N., Rho, S. N., Lee, B. H., & Lee, H. J. (2006). Oral repeated-dose toxicity studies especially in the liver and kidney of rats administered with organic germanium-fortified yeasts. Preventive Nutrition and Food Science, 11(2), 115–119. doi: 10.3746/jfn.2006.11.2.115
   Google Scholar
• Lehmann, F., Daus, B., & Reemtsma, T. (2019). Germanium speciation using liquid chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry: Germanium in biological and chemical leaching solutions of fine-grained residues from copper smelting. Journal of Chromatography A, 1593, 47–53. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.01.061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, B. L., Andreae, M. O., & Froelich, P. N. (1989). Sources and sinks of methylgermanium in natural waters. Marine Chemistry, 27(3–4), 179–200. doi: 10.1016/0304-4203(89)90047-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, B. L., Froelich, P. N., & Andreae, M. O. (1985). Methylgermanium in natural waters. Nature, 313(6000), 303. doi: 10.1038/313303a0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licht, C., Peiro, L. T., & Villalba, G. (2015). Global substance flow analysis of gallium, germanium, and indium: Quantification of extraction, uses, and dissipative losses within their anthropogenic cycles. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 19(5), 890–903. doi: 10.1111/jiec.12287
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, D. H., Li, M., Seo, J. A., Lim, K. M., & Ham, S. W. (2010). A novel organogermanium protected atopic dermatitis induced by oxazolone. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 20(14), 4032–4034. doi: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.05.097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Y., Hou, L. Y., Li, Q. M., Jiang, Z. P., Liu, D., & Zhu, Y. (2016). The effects of exogenous antioxidant germanium (Ge) on seed germination and growth of Lycium ruthenicum Murr subjected to NaCl stress. Environmental Technology, 37(8), 909–919. doi: 10.1080/09593330.2015.1091512
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mainwaring, M. G., Poor, C., Harman, E., & Zander, D. S. (2000). Complete remission of pulmonary spindle cell carcinoma after treatment with oral germanium sesquioxide. Chest, 117(2), 591–593. doi: 10.1378/chest.117.2.591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marco Lozar, J., Cazorla Amoros, D., & Linares Solano, A. (2007). A new strategy for germanium adsorption on activated carbon by complex formation. Carbon, 45(13), 2519–2528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matis, K., Papadoyannis, I., & Zoumboulis, A. (1987). Separation of germanium and arsenic from solutions by flotation. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 21(1–2), 83–92. doi: 10.1016/0301-7516(87)90007-X
   Google Scholar
• Matsumoto, H., Jiang, G. Z., Hashimoto, T., Kuboyama, N., Yamane, J., Nonaka, K., & Fujii, A. (2002). Effect of organic germanium compound (Ge-132) on experimental osteoporosis in rats: The relationship between transverse strength and bone mineral density (BMD) or bone mineral content (BMC). International Journal of Oral-Medical Sciences, 1(1), 10–16. doi: 10.5466/ijoms.1.10
   Google Scholar
• Matsusaka, T., Fujii, M., Nakano, T., Terai, T., Kurata, A., Imaizumi, M., & Abe, H. (1988). Germanium-induced nephropathy: Report of two cases and review of the literature. Clinical Nephrology, 30(6), 341–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVey, B. F., Prabakar, S., Gooding, J. J., & Tilley, R. D. (2017). Solution synthesis, surface passivation, optical properties, biomedical applications, and cytotoxicity of silicon and germanium nanocrystals. ChemPlusChem, 82(1), 60–73. doi: 10.1002/cplu.201600207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel, J., Liu, J., & Kimerling, L. C. (2010). High-performance Ge-on-Si photodetectors. Nature Photonics, 4(8), 527. doi: 10.1038/nphoton.2010.157
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, G. E. (2003). No exponential is forever: But” Forever” can be delayed![semiconductor industry]. 2003 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 2003. Digest of Technical Papers. ISSCC. (pp. 20–23). San Francisco: IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Moskalyk, R. (2004). Review of germanium processing worldwide. Minerals Engineering, 17(3), 393–402. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2003.11.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagata, N., Yoneyama, T., Yanagida, K., Ushio, K., Yanagihara, S., Matsubara, O., & Eishi, Y. (1985). Accumulation of germanium in the tissues of a long-term user of germanium preparation died of acute renal failure. The Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 10(4), 333–341. doi: 10.2131/jts.10.333
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nakamura, T., Nagura, T., Akiba, M., Sato, K., Tokuji, Y., Ohnishi, M., & Osada, K. (2010). Promotive effects of the dietary organic germanium poly-trans-[(2-carboxyethyl) germasesquioxane](Ge-132) on the secretion and antioxidative activity of bile in rodents. Journal of Health Science, 56(1), 72–80. doi: 10.1248/jhs.56.72
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura, T., Saito, M., & Aso, H. (2012). Effects of a lactobacilli, oligosaccharide and organic germanium intake on the immune responses of mice. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 76(2), 375–377. doi: 10.1271/bbb.110655
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obara, K., Saito, T., Sato, H., Yamakage, K., Watanabe, T., Kakizawa, M., … Yoshinaga, K. (1991). Germanium poisoning: Clinical symptoms and renal damage caused by long-term intake of germanium. Japanese Journal of Medicine, 30(1), 67–72. doi: 10.2169/internalmedicine1962.30.67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ogorman, J., & Walker, P. Jr, (1975). Mineral matter and trace elements in US coals (Report No. OCR-61-INT-2). College of Earth and Mineral Sciences: Pennsylvania State University, University Park (USA).
   Google Scholar
• Okada, K., Okagawa, K., Kawakami, K., Kuroda, Y., Morizumi, K., Sato, H., … Saito, S. (1989). Renal failure caused by long-term use of a germanium preparation as an elixir. Clinical Nephrology, 31(4), 219–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okuda, S. (1987). Persistent renal dysfunction induced by chronic intake of germanium-containing compounds. Current Therapeutic Research, 41, 265–275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omata, M., Kikuchi, M., Higuchi, C., Sanaka, S., Takuma, T., Sugino, N., & Mori, Y. (1986). Drug-induced nephropathy: Our recent clinical experience. Developments in Toxicology and Environmental Science, 14, 15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orndorff, W., Tabern, D., & Dennis, L. (1927). Germanium. XVIII. further organic compounds of germanium. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 49(10), 2512–2516. doi: 10.1021/ja01409a022
   Google Scholar
• Pei, Z. L., & Cai, Z. Y. (2012). A review on germanium nanowires. Recent Patents on Nanotechnology, 6(1), 44–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, I. (1981). The price of immunotherapy. Current Problems in Surgery, 18(11), 681–751.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pillarisetty, R. (2011). Academic and industry research progress in germanium nanodevices. Nature, 479(7373), 324–328. doi: 10.1038/nature10678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pokrovski, G. S., & Schott, J. (1998). Experimental study of the complexation of silicon and germanium with aqueous organic species: Implications for germanium and silicon transport and Ge/Si ratio in natural waters. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62(21–22), 3413–3428. doi: 10.1016/S0016-7037(98)00249-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimann, C., & De Caritat, P. (2012). Chemical elements in the environment: Factsheets for the geochemist and environmental scientist. Springer, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Reimann, C., & Garrett, R. G. (2005). Geochemical background—concept and reality. Science of the Total Environment, 350(1–3), 12–27. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.01.047
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimann, C., Hall, G., Siewers, U., Bjorvatn, K., Morland, G., Skarphagen, H., & Strand, T. (1996). Radon, fluoride and 62 elements as determined by ICP-MS in 145 Norwegian hard rock groundwater samples. Science of the Total Environment, 192(1), 1–19. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(96)05272-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, E. (2009). Germanium: Environmental occurrence, importance and speciation. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 8(1), 29–57. doi: 10.1007/s11157-008-9143-x
   Google Scholar
• Ruddy, D. A., Johnson, J. C., Smith, E. R., & Neale, N. R. (2010). Size and bandgap control in the solution-phase synthesis of near-infrared-emitting germanium nanocrystals. Acs Nano, 4(12), 7459–7466. doi: 10.1021/nn102728u
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanai, T., Okuda, S., Onoyama, K., Oochi, N., Oh, Y., Kobayashi, K., … Fujishima, M. (1990). Germanium dioxide-induced nephropathy: A new type of renal disease. Nephron, 54(1), 53–60. doi: 10.1159/000185810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sangsingkeow, P., Berry, K. D., Dumas, E. J., Raudorf, T. W., & Underwood, T. A. (2003). Advances in germanium detector technology. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 505(1–2), 183–186. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9002(03)01047-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scansetti, G. (1992). Exposure to metals that have recently come into use. The Science of the Total Environment, 120(1–2), 85–91. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(92)90218-h
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schauss, A. G. (1991). Nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity in humans from organogermanium compounds and germanium dioxide. Biological Trace Element Research, 29(3), 267–280. doi: 10.1007/BF03032683
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schauss, A. G. (1991). Nephrotoxicity in humans by the ultratrace element germanium. Renal Failure, 13(1), 1–4. doi: 10.3109/08860229109022139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schein, P., Slavik, M., Smythe, T., Hoth, D., Smith, F., Macdonald, J., & Woolley, P. (1980). Phase I clinical trial of spirogermanium. Cancer Treatment Reports, 64(10–11), 1051–1056.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schroeder, H. A., & Balassa, J. J. (1967). Abnormal trace metals in man: Germanium. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 20(4), 211–224. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(67)90003-3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scoyer, J., Guislain, H., & Wolf, H. U. (2000). Germanium and germanium compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (pp.733-738). New York: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH%Co.
   Google Scholar
• Shimada, Y., Sato, K., Tokuji, Y., & Nakamura, T. (2015). Nuclear magnetic resonance studies of the interactions between the organic germanium compound Ge-132 and saccharides. Carbohydrate Research, 407, 10–15. doi: 10.1016/j.carres.2015.01.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shinogi, M., Masaki, T., & Mori, I. (1989). Determination and biokinetics of germanium in mouse tissues by atomic absorption spectrometry with electrothermal atomization. Journal of Trace Elements and Electrolytes in Health and Disease, 3(1), 25–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shuying, Z., Shuling, Y., & Jinshuang, W. (1988). Study on existent forms of germanium in coal, Bangmal basin, Yunnan. Acta Sedimentologica Sinica, 3(3), 29–41.
   Google Scholar
• Sijpesteijn, A. K., Rijkens, F., Luijten, J., & Willemsens, L. (1962). On the antifungal and antibacterial activity of some trisubstituted organogermanium, organotin and organolead compounds. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 28(1), 346–356. doi: 10.1007/BF02538746
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slawson, R. M., Van Dyke, M. I., Lee, H., & Trevors, J. T. (1992). Germanium and silver resistance, accumulation, and toxicity in microorganisms. Plasmid, 27(1), 72–79. doi: 10.1016/0147-619X(92)90008-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, F. B., & Kraus, C. A. (1952). Studies relating to organic germanium derivatives. VI. reactions of sodium triphenylgermanide with organic polyhalides in liquid ammonia and diethyl ether. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 74(6), 1418–1420. doi: 10.1021/ja01126a016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki, F. (1985). Suppression of tumor growth by peritoneal macrophages isolated from mice treated with carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (Ge-132). Gan to Kagaku Ryoho. Cancer & Chemotherapy, 12(11), 2122–2128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki, F. (1987). Antitumor mechanisms of carboxyethyl-germanium sesquioxide (Ge-132) in mice bearing Ehrlich ascites tumors. Gan to Kagaku Ryoho. Cancer & Chemotherapy, 14(1), 127–134.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki, F., Brutkiewicz, R., & Pollard, R. (1985). Ability of sera from mice treated with Ge-132, an organic germanium compound, to inhibit experimental murine ascites tumours. British Journal of Cancer, 52(5), 757. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1985.254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki, F., Brutkiewicz, R., & Pollard, R. (1986). Cooperation of lymphokine (s) and macrophages in expression of antitumor activity of carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (Ge-132). Anticancer Research, 6(2), 177–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuli, F., & Pollard, R. B. (1984). Prevention of suppressed interferon gamma production in thermally injured mice by administration of a novel organogermanium compound, Ge-132. Journal of Interferon Research, 4(2), 223–233. doi: 10.1089/jir.1984.4.223
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swennen, B., Mallants, A., Roels, H., Buchet, J. P., Bernard, A., Lauwerys, R., & Lison, D. (2000). Epidemiological survey of workers exposed to inorganic germanium compounds. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(4), 242–248. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.4.242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeuchi, A., Yoshizawa, N., Oshima, S., Kubota, T., Oshikawa, Y., Akashi, Y., … Fuse, Y. (1992). Nephrotoxicity of germanium compounds: Report of a case and review of the literature. Nephron, 60(4), 436–442. doi: 10.1159/000186805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka, N., Ohida, J., Ono, M., Yoshiwara, H., Beika, T., Terasawa, A., … Orita, K. (1984). Augmentation of NK activity in peripheral blood lymphocytes of cancer patients by intermittent Ge-132 administration. Gan to Kagaku Ryoho. Cancer & Chemotherapy, 11(6), 1303–1306.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tao, S. H., & Bolger, P. M. (1997). Hazard assessment of germanium supplements. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 25(3), 211–219. doi: 10.1006/rtph.1997.1098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer, J. S. (1987). Germapharmaca: Some recent studies on biologically active organogermanium compounds. Applied Organometallic Chemistry, 1(3), 227–234. doi: 10.1002/aoc.590010303
   Google Scholar
• Tomoya, A., Eishun, N., Takao, M., Yoichi, S., Yoshihisa, K., Hiroyasu, O., … Akira, G. (1995). Germanium intoxication with sensory ataxia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 130(2), 220–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torralvo, F. A., & Fernandez Pereira, C. (2011). Recovery of germanium from real fly ash leachates by ion-exchange extraction. Minerals Engineering, 24(1), 35–41. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2010.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ullmann, F., Gerhartz, W., Yamamoto, Y. S., Campbell, F. T., Pfefferkorn, R., & Rounsaville, J. F. (1985). Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. Vancouver, NY: VCH Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• US Geological Survey (2009). Mineral commodity summaries, 2009. New York, NY: Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• Van der Spoel, J., Stricker, B. C., Esseveld, M., & Schipper, M. (1990). Dangers of dietary germanium supplements. Lancet (London, England), 336(8707), 117. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91632-k
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei, Q., & Rimmer, S. M. (2017). Acid solubility and affinities of trace elements in the high-Ge coals from Wulantuga (Inner Mongolia) and Lincang (Yunnan Province), China. International Journal of Coal Geology, 178, 39–55. doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2017.04.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkler, C. (1886). Germanium, ge, ein neues, nichtmetallisches element. Berichte Der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 19(1), 210–211. doi: 10.1002/cber.18860190156
   Google Scholar
• Yamanoi, Y., Sendo, J., Kobayashi, T., Maeda, H., Yabusaki, Y., Miyachi, M., … Nishihara, H. (2012). A new method to generate arene-terminated Si (111) and Ge (111) surfaces via a palladium-catalyzed arylation reaction. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 134(50), 20433–20439. doi: 10.1021/ja308606t
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yashiki, Y., Miyajima, S., Yamada, A., & Konagai, M. (2006). Deposition and characterization of μc-Ge1− xCx thin films grown by hot-wire chemical vapor deposition using organo-germane. Thin Solid Films, 501(1–2), 202–205. doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2005.07.174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, K., Murthy, H., Jeong, C., Hahn, E., & Paek, K. (2005). Organic germanium stimulates the growth of ginseng adventitious roots and ginsenoside production. Process Biochemistry, 40(9), 2959–2961. doi: 10.1016/j.procbio.2005.01.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, F. W., Yang, H. J., & Tuan, H. Y. (2012). Alkanethiol-passivated Ge nanowires as high-performance anode materials for lithium-ion batteries: The role of chemical surface functionalization. ACS Nano, 6(11), 9932–9942. doi: 10.1021/nn303519g
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, Y. H., Li, R. S., Wang, Q., Wu, Z. L., Wang, J., Liu, H., & Huang, C. Z. (2015). Germanium-doped carbon dots as a new type of fluorescent probe for visualizing the dynamic invasions of mercury(II) ions into cancer cells. Nanoscale, 7(40), 16841–16847. doi: 10.1039/C5NR05326A
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M., & Zhang, M. (2006). Assessing the impact of leather industry to water quality in the Aojing watershed in Zhejiang Province, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 115(1–3), 321–333. doi: 10.1007/s10661-006-6557-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M., & Zhang, M. (2007). Assessing the impact of leather industries on the quality of water discharged into the East China Sea from Wenzhou Watersheds. Journal of Environmental Management, 85(2), 393–403. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.10.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, S., Wang, S., & Yin, J. (1987). A study of germanium ore in uranium-bearing coal of Bangmai basin, Lincang region, Yunnan Province. Uranium Geology, 3(5), 266, 267–275.
   Google Scholar