Hydrologic and water quality impacts of agricultural drainage∗

References

• Pavelis , G. A. 1987 . “ Economic survey of farm drainage ” . In Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects , Misc. Publ. No. 1455 Edited by: Pavelis , G. A. 110 USDA Economic Research Service .
   Google Scholar
• Shady , A. M. 1989 . Irrigation Drainage and Flood Control in Canada , 309 Ottawa : Canadian International Development Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Van Schilfgaarde , J. 1987 . Trends in water management for agriculture . Culturtech. Tijdschr. , 26 : 323
   Google Scholar
• Letey , J. , Roberts , C. , Penberth , M. and Vasek , C. 1986 . An Agricultural Dilemma: Drainage Water and Toxics Disposal in the San Joaquin Valley , Spec. Publ. No. 3319 Agric. Exp. Sta., Univ. of California, Riverside, Div. Agric. and Natural Resour. .
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman , G. J. . Environmental impacts of subsurface drainage . Land Drainage, Proc. 4th Int. Drainage Workshop . Edited by: Lesaffre , B. pp. 71 Cairo, Egypt : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Duda , A. and Klimek , A. . Significance of Nonpoint Sources of Nutrients to Eutrophication in the Chowan River . Workshop on Agrichemicals and Estuarine Productivity . Beaufort, NC : Duke Univ. Marine Lab. .
   Google Scholar
• Gilliam , J. W. . Drainage water quality and the environment, Keynote Address . Proc. 5th Natl. Drainage Symp. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 7–87 , pp. 19
   Google Scholar
• Kirby‐Smith , W. W. and Barber , R. T. 1979 . The Water Quality Ramifications in Estuaries of Converting Forest to Intensive Agriculture , Water Res. Inst. Rep. No. 148 Raleigh : Univ. of North Carolina .
   Google Scholar
• Pate , P. P. and Jones , R. 1981 . Effects of Upland Drainage on Estuarine Nursery Areas of Pamlico Sound, North Carolina , Working Paper No. 81–10 Univ. of North Carolina Sea Grant Program .
   Google Scholar
• Reeve , R. C. and Fausey , N. 1974 . “ Drainage and timeliness of fanning operations ” . In Drainage for Agriculture , Am. Soc. Agron., Monogr. No. 17 Edited by: Van Schilfgaarde , J. 55 Madison, WI
   Google Scholar
• Fausey , N. R. , Doering , E. J. and Palmer , M. L. 1987 . “ Purposes and benefits of drainage ” . In Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects , Misc. Publ. No. 1455 Edited by: Pavelis , G. A. 48 USDA Economic Research Service .
   Google Scholar
• Vos , J. , ed. . Symp. Proc. 25th Int. Course on Land Drainage . Wageningen : International Institute of Land Reclammation and Improvement . Publ. No. 42
   Google Scholar
• Ochs , W. J. , Wenberg , R. D. and Stroup , G. W. 1987 . “ Drainage system elements ” . In Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects , Edited by: Pavelis , G. A. 79 USDA Economie Research Service . Misc. Publ. No. 1455,
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. 1987 . “ Principles of drainage ” . In Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects , Misc. Publ. No. 1455 Edited by: Pavelis , G. A. 62 USDA Economic Research Service .
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. and Nassehzadeh‐Tabrizi , A. 1983 . Optimum drainage for com production , Tech. Bull. No. 274 41 North Carolina Agric. Res. Serv., North Carolina State Univ. .
   Google Scholar
• Hill , A. R. 1976 . The environmental impacts of agricultural land drainage . J. Environ. Manage. , 4 : 251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. . Design and management of drainage systems, Keynote Address . Proc. 5th Natl. Drainage Symp. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 7–87 , pp. 1
   Google Scholar
• Gregory , J. D. 1988 . “ Hydrologic impacts of forest water management ” . In The Ecology and Management of Wetlands, Management, Use, and Value of Wetlands , Edited by: Hook , D. D. Vol. 2 , 137 Portland, OR : Timber Press .
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Irrigation Induced Water Quality Problems (COITWQP) . 1989 . Irrigation‐Induced Water Quality Problems, What Can Be Learned from the San Joaquin Valley Experience , 157 Washington, D.C. : National Research Council, National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. . Report on sustainability of drainage systems . Land Drainage, Proc. 4th Int. Drainage Workshop . Edited by: Lesaffre , B. pp. 39 Cairo, , Egypt : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , K. L. , Kumar , S. and Johnson , H. P. 1972 . Stream straightening effects on flood‐runoff characteristics . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 15 : 94
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. , Gilliam , J. W. , Sheets , T. J. and Barnes , J. S. 1980 . Effect of Agricultural Land Development on Drainage Waters in the North Carolina Tidewater Region , Water Resour. Res. Inst., Rep. No. 159 Raleigh : Univ. of North Carolina .
   Google Scholar
• Irwin , R. W. and Whiteley , H. R. 1983 . Effects of land drainage on stream flow . Can. Water Resour. J. , 8 : 88
   Google Scholar
• Gregory , J. D. , Skaggs , R. W. , Broadhead , R. G. , Culbreath , R. H. , Bailey , J. R. and Foutz , T. L. 1984 . Hydrologic and Water Quality Impacts of Peat Mining in North Carolina , Water Resour. Res. Inst., Rep. No. 214 Raleigh : Univ. of North Carolina .
   Google Scholar
• Gilliam , J. W. and Skaggs , R. W. 1986 . Controlled agricultural drainage to maintain water quality . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 112 : 254
   Google Scholar
• Starr , M. R. and Paivanen , J. 1986 . “ Runoff response to peatland forest drainage in Finland: a synthesis ” . In Forest Site and Productivity Edited by: Gessel , S. P. 43 Dordrecht
   Google Scholar
• Evans , R. O. , Gilliam , J. W. and Skaggs , R. W. 1989 . Effects of Agricultural Water Table Management on Drainage Water Quality , Water Resour. Res. Inst., Rep. No. 237 Raleigh : Univ. of North Carolina .
   Google Scholar
• Baden , W. and Eggelsman , R. 1968 . The hydrologie budget of the highbogs in the Atlantic region . Proc. 3rd Int. Peat Congr. . 1968 , Quebec. pp. 200
   Google Scholar
• Burke , W. . Aspects of the hydrology of blanket peat in Ireland . Int. Symp. on Hydrology of Marsh‐Ridden Areas . Minsk. pp. 16 Byelorussian SSR .
   Google Scholar
• Green , F. H. W. 1973 . “ Hydrology in relation to peat sites ” . In Peatland Forestry , 103 Edinburgh : NERC .
   Google Scholar
• Pereira , H. C. 1973 . Land Use and Water Resources in Temperate and Tropical Climates , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Heikurainen , L. 1976 . Comparison between runoff conditions on a virgin peatland and a forest drainage area, in Proc . 5th Int. Peat Congr. . 1976 , Poznan. pp. 76
   Google Scholar
• Heikurainen , L. . Effect of forest drainage on high discharge, in The Influence of Man on the Hydrological Regime with Special Reference to Representative and Experimental Basins . Proc. Helsinki Symp. . pp. 89 IAHS‐AISH Publ. No. 130
   Google Scholar
• Heikurainen , L. , Kenttaines , K. and Liane , J. 1978 . The environmental effects of forest drainage . SUO , 29 : 49
   Google Scholar
• Konyha , K. D. , Skaggs , R. W. and Gilliam , J. W. 1992 . Effects of drainage and water‐management practices on hydrology . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 118 : 807
   Google Scholar
• Conway , V. M. and Miller , A. 1960 . The hydrology of small peat‐covered catchments in the Northern Pennines . J. Inst. Water. Eng. , 14 : 415
   Google Scholar
• Mustonen , S. E. and Seuna , P. 1971 . Influence of Forest Draining on the Hydrology ofPeatlands , Finland : National Board of Waters, Water Resour. Inst. . Publ. No. 2,
   Google Scholar
• Ahti , E. . Ditch spacing experiments in estimating the effects of peatland drainage on summer runoff . The Influence of Man on the Hydrological Regime with Special Reference to Representative and Experimental Basins, Proc. Helsinki Symposium . pp. 49 IAHS‐AISH Publ. No. 130,
   Google Scholar
• Seuna , P. 1981 . Long‐Term Influence of Forestry Drainage on the Hydrology of an Open Bog in Finland , Finland : National Board of Waters, Water Resour. Inst. . Publ. No. 43,
   Google Scholar
• Seuna , P. 1987 . Influence of forestry on material transport and runoff . Wetlands/Peatlands, 1987 Symp. . 1987 , Edmonton, Alberta. pp. 161
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , R. J. . Hydrology of an acid wetland before and after draining for afforestation, Western New Zealand . Forest Hydrology and Watershed Management Proc. Vancourver Symp. . IAHS‐AISH Publ. No. 167,
   Google Scholar
• Ice , G. G. 1984 . “ International research on the hydrologic impacts of draining forest lands ” . In Research on the Effects of Forest Harvesting, Drainage, Mechanical Site Preparation and Prescribed Fire on Water Quality , NACSI Tech. Bull. No. 442 40 NY
   Google Scholar
• Askey , G. R. and Williams , T. M. 1984 . Sediment concentrations from intensively prepared wetland sites . S. J. Appl. For. , 8 : 152
   Google Scholar
• Askey , G. R. and Williams , T. M. 1986 . Water quality changes due to site conversion in coastal South Carolina . S. J. Appl. For. , 10 : 134
   Google Scholar
• Ritter , W. F. , Chirnside , A. E. M. and Scarborough , R. W. 1985 . “ Effect of agricultural drainage on surface water quality in Delaware ” . In Development and Management Aspects of Irrigation and Drainage Systems , Edited by: Keyes , C. G. Jr. and Ward , T. J. 345 American Society of Civil Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Trettin , C. C. and Sheets , P. J. . Impacts of forest drainage on water quality . Proc. 5th Natl. Drainage Symp. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 7–87 , pp. 231
   Google Scholar
• Hortenstine , C. C. and Forbes , R. B. 1972 . Concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and total soluble salts in soil solution samples from fertilized and unfertilized histosols . J. Environ. Qual. , 1 : 446
   Google Scholar
• Nicholls , K. H. and MacCrimmon , H. R. 1974 . Nutrients in subsurface and runoff waters of the Holland Marsh, Ontario . J. Environ. Qual. , 3 : 31
   Google Scholar
• Gambrell , R. P. , Gilliam , J. W. and Weed , S. B. 1975 . Nitrogen losses from soils of the North Carolina coastal plain . J. Environ. QuaL , 4 : 317
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuenzler , E. J. , Mulholland , P. J. and Ruley , L. A. 1977 . Water Quality in North Carolina Coastal Plain Streams and Effects of Channelization , Water Resour. Res. Inst., Rep. No. 127 Raleigh : Univ. of North Carolina .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs , T. C. and Gilliam , J. W. 1985 . Riparian losses of nitrate from agricultural drainage waters . J. Environ. Qual. , 14 : 472
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowrance , R. R. , Todd , R. L. and Asmussen , L. E. 1984 . Nutrient cycling in an agricultural watershed. H. Streamflow and artificial drainage . J. Environ. Qual. , 13 : 27
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richard , P. , Chieng , S. T. and Nagpal , N. K. . Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, An International Environmental Perspective . 2nd Pan‐American Regional Conf. . Water and nutrient movement in an agricultural soil under drained and undrained conditions , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. pp. 281 Ottawa : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Roberts , G. , Hudson , J. A. and Blackie , J. R. 1986 . Effect of upland pasture improvement on nutrient release in flows from a natural lysimeter and a field drain . Agric. Water Manage. , 11 : 231
   Google Scholar
• Thomas , D. L. , Shirmohammadi , A. , Lowrance , R. R. and Smith , M. C. 1991 . Drainage‐subirrigation effect on water quality in the Georgia Fiatwoods . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 117 : 123
   Google Scholar
• Skogerboe , G. V. , Walker , W. R. and Ayars , J. E. . Drainage for Reducing Salt Pickup from Grand Valley . Proc. 3rd Natl. Drainage Symp., Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 1–77 , pp. 87
   Google Scholar
• van Schilfgaarde , J. and Hoffman , G. J. . Managing salt by drainage in irrigated agriculture . Proc. 3rd Natl. Drainage Symp., Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 1–77 , pp. 84
   Google Scholar
• Paterson , B. A. and Harker , D. B. 1980 . “ Tile drainage of irrigated till soils in Alberta ” . In Irrigation and Drainage, Today's Challenges , Edited by: Eggleston , J. 263 American Society of Civil Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , W. R. , Steinert , B. C. and Stroh , C. M. . Benefits from the drainage of heavy irrigated soils . Proc. 4th Natl. Drainage Symp., Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 12–82 , pp. 171
   Google Scholar
• Backlund , V. L. and Hoppes , R. R. 1984 . Status of soil salinity in California . Calif. Agric , 38 (10) : 8
   Google Scholar
• Van Schilfgaarde , J. 1986 . “ Agriculture, irrigation and water quality ” . In Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Defining the Problems , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. 173 USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman , G. J. and Van Schilfgaarde , J. 1987 . “ Drainage for irrigation: managing soil salinity and drainage‐water quality ” . In Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects , Misc. Publ. No. 1455 Edited by: Pavelis , G. A. 96 USDA Economic Research Service .
   Google Scholar
• Jonez , A. R. 1983 . “ Controlling salinity in the Colorado River Basin, the arid west ” . In Salinity in Water Courses and Reservoirs Edited by: French , R. H. 337 Butterworth, Boston
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. . Simulation drainage system performance as affected by irrigation management . Symp. on Land Drainage for Salinity Control in Arid and Semi‐Arid Regions, Keynotes . Vol. 1 , pp. 61 Cairo, , Egypt : Drainage Research Institute, Water Resource Center .
   Google Scholar
• Ohlendorff , H. M. , Mothem , R. L. , Bunck , C. M. , Aldrich , T. W. and Moore , J. F. 1986 . Relationships between selenium concentration and avian reproduction . North Am. Wildlife Natural Resour. Conf. . 1986 .
   Google Scholar
• Day , M. and Nelson , D. G. 1986 . “ Irrigation drainage flows, salinity and trace element relationships in Broadview Water District ” . In Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Defining the Problems , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. 45 USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , W. R. and Steinert , B. C. 1986 . “ Agricultural drainage water management problems in Westlands Water District ” . In Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Defining the Problems , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. 37 USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Groves , G. R. , Squires , R. C. and Johnston , W. R. 1988 . “ Selenium removal from agricultural drainage water ” . In Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Searching for Solutions , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. 25 USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Deason , J. P. 1989 . Irrigation‐induced contamination: how real a problem? . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 115 : 9
   Google Scholar
• Tanji , K. K. 1989 . “ Chemistry of toxic elements (As, B, Mo, Se) accumulating in agricultural evaporation ponds ” . In Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, An International Environmental Perspective , Edited by: Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. 109 Ottawa : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , S. B. 1989 . Selenium in agricultural drainage: essential nutrient or toxic threat? . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 115 : 21
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. , eds. 1986 . Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Defining the Problems , USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. , eds. 1988 . Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, Searching for Solutions , USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Summers , J. B. and Anderson , S. S. , eds. 1989 . Toxic Substances in Agricultural Water Supply and Drainage, An International Environmental Perspective , Ottawa : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Backstrom , T. E. and Reid , L. J. , eds. 1990 . Controlling Toxic Substances in Agricultural Drainage, Emerging Technologies and Research Needs , USCID .
   Google Scholar
• Holy , M. 1990 . The Influence of Irrigation and Drainage on the Environment with Particular Emphasis on Impact on the Quality of Surface and Ground Waters , Vol. 1A , Ottawa : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Clinton , F. M. 1948 . Invisible irrigation of Egin Bench . Reclam. Era , 34 : 182
   Google Scholar
• Renfro , G. Jr. 1955 . “ Applying water under the surface of the ground ” . In Water: Yearbook of Agriculture , 173 USDA .
   Google Scholar
• Kriz , G. J. and Skaggs , R. W. 1973 . Water management using subsurface drains . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 28 : 216
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. 1973 . Water table movement during subirrigation . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 16 : 988
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. 1981 . Water movement factors important to the design and operation of subirri‐gation systems . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 24 : 1553
   Google Scholar
• Doty , C. W. , Parsons , J. E. , Badr , A. W. , Nassehzadeh‐Tabrizi , A. and Skaggs , R. W. 1985 . Water table control for water resource projects on sandy soils . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 40 : 360
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menan , N. A. , Broughton , R. S. , Madramootoo , C. A. , Prasher , S. O. and von Hoeningen Huene , B. 1986 . A method of designing subsurface irrigation/drainage systems to maximize net benefits . Can. Water Resour. J. , 2 : 46
   Google Scholar
• von Bakel , P. J. T. 1988 . Using drainage systems for supplemental irrigation . Irrig. Drain. Syst. , 2 : 125
   Google Scholar
• Evans , R. O. and Skaggs , R. W. 1989 . Design guidelines for water table management systems on coastal plain soils . Appl. Eng. Agric , 5 : 539
   Google Scholar
• Fouss , J. L. , Skaggs , R. W. , Ayars , J. E. and Belcher , H. W. 1990 . “ Water table control and shallow groundwater utilization ” . In Management of Farm Irrigation Systems , Edited by: Hoffman , G. J. , Howel , T. A. and Solomon , K. H. 783 St. Joseph, MI : American Society of Agricultural Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Baker , J. L. and Johnson , H. P. . Impact of subsurface drainage on water quality . Proc. 3rd Natl. Drainage Symp., Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 1–77 , pp. 91
   Google Scholar
• Whiteley , H. R. and Ghate , S. R. 1979 . Sources and amounts of overland runoff from rain on three small watersheds . Can. Agric. Eng. , 21 : 1
   Google Scholar
• Bottcher , A. B. , Monke , E. J. and Huggins , L. F. 1981 . Nutrient and sediment loadings from a subsurface drainage system . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 24 : 1221
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. and Gilliam , J. W. 1981 . Effect of drainage system design and operation on nitrate transport . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 24 : 929
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. , Nassehzadeh‐Tabrizi , A. and Foster , G. R. 1982 . Subsurface drainage effects on erosion . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 37 : 167
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bengtson , R. L. , Carter , C. E. , Morris , H. F. and Kowalczuk , J. G. 1983 . Subsurface effectiveness on alluvial soil . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 26 : 423
   Google Scholar
• Bengtson , R. L. , Carter , C. E. , Morris , H. F. and Kowalczuk , J. G. 1984 . Reducing water pollution with subsurface drainage . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 7 : 80
   Google Scholar
• Bengtson , R. L. , Carter , C. E. , Morris , H. F. and Bartkiewicz , S. A. 1988 . The influence of subsurface drainage practices on nitrogen and phosphorus losses in a warm, humid climate . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 31 : 729
   Google Scholar
• Bengtson , R. L. and Sabbagh , G. 1990 . USLE P Factors for subsurface drainage on low slopes in a hot, humid climate . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 45 : 480
   Google Scholar
• Istok , J. D. and Kling , G. F. Effect of subsurface drainage on runoff and sediment yield from an agricultural watershed in western Oregon, U.S.A. . J. Hydrol. , 65 279
   Google Scholar
• Ross , E. A. 1989 . Benefits to Surface and Ground Water Quality Resulting from On‐Farm Subsurface Drainage Systems , paper no. 89–2683 St. Joseph, MI : American Society of Agricultural Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. , Gilliam , J. W. and Evans , R. O. 1991 . A computer simulation study of pocosin hydrology . Wetlands , 11 : 399
   Google Scholar
• Deal , S. C. , Gilliam , J. W. , Skaggs , R. W. and Konyha , K. D. 1986 . Prediction of nitrogen and phosphorus losses as related to drainage system design . Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. , 18 : 37
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs , R. W. and Nassehzadeh‐Tabrizi , A. 1981 . “ Effect of drainage system on surface and subsurface runoff from artificially drained lands ” . In Applied Modeling in Catchment Hydrology , 337 Mississippi State University State College .
   Google Scholar
• Natho‐Jina , S. , Prasher , S. O. , Madramootoo , C. A. and Broughton , R. S. 1987 . Measurements and analysis of runoff from subsurface drained farmlands . Can. Agric. Eng. , 29 : 123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. 1990 . Impact of improved land drainage on river flows , Rep. No. 113 Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxon, , U.K. : Institute of Hydrology .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) . 1980 . “ Appraisal ” . In Soil and Water Resour Conserv. Act Washington, D.C.
   Google Scholar
• Logan , T. J. and Stiefel , R. C. 1979 . The Maumee River Basin Pilot Watershed Study, Watershed Characteristics and Pollutant Loadings , USERA Rep. No. 905/9–79–005‐A Vol. I , Chicago, IL
   Google Scholar
• Logan , T. J. 1981 . The Maumee River Basin Pilot Watershed Study, Continued Watershed Monitoring (1979–80) , USEPA Rep. No. 905/9–79–005‐C Vol. III , Chicago, IL
   Google Scholar
• Schwab , G. O. , McLean , E. O. , Waldron , A. C. , White , R. K. and Michener , D. W. 1973 . Quality of drainage water from a heavy‐textured soil . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 16 : 1104
   Google Scholar
• Schwab , G. O. , Nolte , B. H. and Brehm , R. D. 1977 . Sediment for drainage systems for clay soils . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 20 : 866
   Google Scholar
• Schwab , G. O. , Fausey , N. R. and Kopcak , D. E. 1980 . Sediment and chemical content of agricultural drainage water . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 23 : 1446
   Google Scholar
• Culley , J. L. B. , Bolton , E. F. and Bernyk , V. 1983 . Suspended solids and phosphorus loads from a clay soil. I. Plot studies . J. Environ. Qual. , 12 : 493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culley , J. L. B. and Bolton , E. F. 1983 . Suspended solids and phosphorus loads from a clay soil. II. Watershed study . J. Environ. Qual. , 12 : 498
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , W. R. , Ittihadieh , F. , Daum , R. M. and Pillsbury , A. F. 1965 . Nitrogen and phosphorus in tile drainage effluent . Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. , 29 : 287
   Google Scholar
• Carter , D. L. , Bondurant , J. A. and Robbins , C. W. 1971 . Water soluble NO3‐nitrogen, PO4‐phosphorus, and total salt balances on a large irrigation tract . Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. , 35 : 331
   Google Scholar
• Devitt , D. , Letley , J. , Lund , L. J. and Blair , J. W. 1976 . Nitrate‐nitrogen movement through soil as affected by soil profile characteristics . J. Environ. Qual. , 5 : 283
   Google Scholar
• Kohl , D. H. , Shearer , G. B. and Commoner , B. 1971 . Fertilizer nitrogen: contribution to nitrate in surface water in a corn belt watershed . Science , 174 : 1331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benoit , G. R. 1973 . Effect of agricultural management of wet sloping soil on nitrate and phosphorus in surface and subsurface water . Water Resour. Res. , 9 : 1296
   Google Scholar
• Baker , J. L. , Campbell , K. L. , Johnson , H. P. and Hanway , J. J. 1975 . Nitrate, phosphorus and sulfate in subsurface drainage water . J. Environ. Qual. , 4 : 406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwar , R. S. , Johnson , H. P. and Baker , J. L. 1983 . Comparison of simulated and measured nitrate losses in tile effluent . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 26 : 1451
   Google Scholar
• Gilliam , J. W. , Skaggs , R. W. and Weed , S. B. 1979 . Drainage control to diminish nitrate loss form agricultural fields . J. Environ. Qual. , 8 : 137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard , R. K. and Sheridan , J. M. 1983 . Water and nitrate‐nitrogen losses from a small, upland, coastal plain watershed . J. Environ. Qual. , 12 : 291
   Google Scholar
• Benoit , G. R. , Grant , W. J. , Bornstein , J. and Hepler , P. 1989 . Carbon and nitrogen levels in subsurface drained silty clay soil . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 32 : 559
   Google Scholar
• Gold , A. J. and Loudon , T. L. 1989 . Tillage effects on surface runoff water quality from artificially drained cropland . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 32 : 1329
   Google Scholar
• Gast , R. G. , Nelson , W. W. and Randall , G. W. 1978 . Nitrate accumulation in soils and loss in tile drainage following nitrogen applications to continuous corn . J. Environ. Qual. , 7 : 258
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan , T. J. , Randall , G. W. and Timmons , D. R. 1980 . Nutrient content of tile drainage from cropland in the north central region . Ohio Agric. Res. Dev. Cent. Res. Bull. , : 1119
   Google Scholar
• Bolton , E. F. , Aylesworth , J. W. and Hore , F. R. 1970 . Nutrient losses through tile drains under three cropping systems and two fertility levels on a brookston clay soil . Can. J. Soil Sci. , 50 : 275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , A. R. and McCague , W. P. 1974 . Nitrate concentrations in streams near Alliston, Ontario, as influenced by nitrogen fertilization of adjacent fields . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 29 : 217
   Google Scholar
• Wiyo , K. , Madramootoo , C. A. , Enright , P. and Bastien , C. 1990 . Modeling nutrients in runoff from potato fields using CREAMS , St. Joseph, MI : American Society of Agricultural Engineers . paper no. 90–2505
   Google Scholar
• Williams , R. J. B. 1970 . The chemical composition of water from land drains at Saxmundham and Woburn, and the influence of rainfall upon nutrient losses , Rothamsted Exp. Sta. Rep. No. 1970, Pt. 2 Harpenden, , England
   Google Scholar
• Brink , N. . Losses of substances from tile drained soils, in Land Drainage . Proc. 4th Int. Drainage Workshop . Edited by: Lesaffre , B. pp. 209 Cairo, , Egypt : ICID .
   Google Scholar
• Evans , R. O. , Gilliam , J. W. and Skaggs , R. W. 1990 . Controlled drainage management guidelines to improve drainage water quality . N.C. Agric. Ext. Serv. Bull. , AG‐443
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , K. L. , Rogers , J. S. and Hensel , D. R. 1985 . Drainage water quality from potato production . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 28 : 1798
   Google Scholar
• Rogers , J. S. , Stewart , E. H. , Calvert , D. V. and Mansell , R. S. . Water quality from a subsurface drained citrus grove . Proc. 3rd Natl. Drainage Symp., Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. . Vol. 1–77 , pp. 99
   Google Scholar
• Thornley , S. and Bos , A. W. 1985 . Effects of livestock wastes and agricultural drainage on water quality: an Ontario case study . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 40 : 173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flemming , R. J. 1990 . Impact of agricultural practices on tile water quality , paper no. 90–2028 St. Joseph, MI : American Society of Agricultural Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Hergert , G. W. , Klausner , S. D. , Bouldin , D. R. and Zwerman , P. J. 1981 . Effects of dairy manure on phosphorus concentrations and losses in tile effluent . J. Environ. Qual. , 10 : 345
   Google Scholar
• Miller , M. H. 1979 . Contribution of nitrogen and phosphorus to subsurface drainage water from intensively cropped mineral and organic soils in Ontario . J. Environ. Qual. , 8 : 42
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muir , D. C. and Baker , B. E. 1976 . Detection of triazine herbicides and their degradation products in tile‐drain water from fields under intensive corn (maize) production . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 24 : 122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard , R. A. , Shirmohammadi , A. , Johnson , A. W. and Marti , L. R. 1988 . Pesticide transport in shallow groundwater . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 31 : 776
   Google Scholar
• Bengtson , R. L. , Southwick , L. M. , Willis , G. H. and Carter , C. E. 1990 . The influence of subsurface drainage practices on herbicide losses . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 33 : 415
   Google Scholar
• Southwick , L. M. , Willis , G. H. , Bengtson , R. L. and Lormand , T. J. 1990 . Atrazine and metolachlor in subsurface drain water in Louisiana . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 116 : 16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenhuis , T. S. , Staubitz , W. , Andreini , M. S. , Surface , J. , Richard , T. L. , Paulsen , R. , Pickering , N. B. , Hagennan , J. R. and Geohring , L. D. 1990 . Preferential movement of pesticides and tracers in agricultural soils . J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. , 116 : 50
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kladivko , E. J. , Van Scoyoc , G. E. , Monke , E. J. , Oates , K. M. and Pask , W. 1991 . Pesticide and nutrient movement into subsurface tile drains on a silt loam soil in Indiana . J. Environ. Qual. , 20 : 264
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan , T. J. , Eckert , D. J. and Beak , D. G. in press . Tillage, crop and climatic effects on runoff and tile drainage losses of nitrate and four herbicides . Soil Till. Res. ,
   Google Scholar
• Munster , C. L. , Skaggs , R. W. , Parsons , J. E. , Evans , R. O. and Gilliam , J. W. 1991 . Modelling aldicarb transport under drainage, controlled drainage and subirrigation , paper no. 91–2631 St. Joseph, MI : American Society of Agricultural Engineers .
   Google Scholar
• Thomas , D. L. , Hunt , P. G. and Gilliam , J. W. 1992 . Water table management for water quality improvement . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 47 : 65
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons , J. E. , Skaggs , R. W. and Gilliam , J. W. . Pesticide fate with DRAINMOD/ CREAMS . Proc. CREAMS/GLEAMS Symp. . Edited by: Beasley , D. B. , Knisel , W. G. and Rice , A. P. pp. 123 Agric. Eng. Dept., Coastal Plain Exp. Sta., University of Georgia . Publ. No. 4
   Google Scholar
• Meek , B. D. , Grass , L. B. and MacKenzie , A. J. 1969 . Applied nitrogen losses in relation to oxygen status of soils . Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. , 33 : 575
   Google Scholar
• Willardson , L. S. , Meek , B. D. , Grass , L. B. , Dickey , G. L. and Bayley , J. W. 1970 . Drain installation for nitrate reduction . Grount Water , 8 : 11
   Google Scholar
• Willardson , L. S. , Meek , B. D. , Grass , L. B. , Dickey , G. L. and Bailey , J. W. 1972 . Nitrate reduction with submerged drains . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 15 : 84
   Google Scholar
• Committee on Research of the Irrigation and Drainage Division . 1974 . Water management through irrigation and drainage: progress, problems, and opportunities . J. Irrig. Drain. Div. , 100 : 153
   Google Scholar
• Raveh , A. and Avnimelech , Y. 1973 . Minimizing nitrate seepage from the Hula Valley into Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee). I. Enhancement of nitrate reduction by sprinkling and flooding . J. Environ. Qual. , 2 : 455
   Google Scholar
• Evans , R. O. , Parsons , J. E. , Stone , K. and Wells , W. B. 1992 . Water table management on a watershed scale . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 47 : 58
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , J. A. , Shirmohammadi , A. , Magette , W. L. , Fouss , J. L. , Bengtson , R. L. and Parsons , J. E. 1992 . Water table management practice effects on water quality . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 35 : 823
   Google Scholar
• Stone , K. C. , Sommers , R. C. , Williams , G. H. and Hawkins , D. E. 1992 . Water table management in the eastern coastal plain. . J. Soil Water Conserv. , 47 : 47
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwar , R. S. , Baker , J. L. and Johnson , H. P. 1984 . Simulated effects of fertilizer management on nitrate loss with tile drainage water for continuous com . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 27 : 1396
   Google Scholar
• Kanwar , R. S. , Baker , J. L. and Baker , D. G. 1988 . Tillage and split N‐fertilization effects on subsurface drainage water quality and crop yields . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 31 : 453
   Google Scholar
• Dick , W. A. , Edwards , W. M. and Haghiri , F. . Water movement through soil to which no‐tillage cropping practices have been continuously applied . Agricultural Impacts on Ground Water — A Conference . pp. 243 Dublin, OH : Water Well Publishing Co. .
   Google Scholar
• Peterjohn , W. T. and Correll , D. L. 1986 . “ The effect of riparian forest on the volume and chemical composition of base flow in an agricultural watershed ” . In Watershed Research Perspectives , Edited by: Correll , D. L. 244 Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cooper , J. R. , Gilliam , J. W. , Daniels , R. B. and Robarge , W. P. 1987 . Riparian areas as filters for agricultural sediment . Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. , 51 : 416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy , K. R. , Campbell , K. L. , Graetz , D. A. and Portier , K. M. 1982 . Use of biological filters for treating agricultural drainage effluents . J. Environ. Qual. , 11 : 591
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy , K. R. , Sacco , P. D. , Graetz , D. A. , Campbell , K. L. and Sinclair , L. R. 1982 . Water treatment by aquatic ecosystem: nutrient removal by reservoirs and flooded fields . Environ. Manage. , 6 : 261
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy , K. R. , Sacco , P. D. , Graetz , D. A. , Campbell , K. L. and Portier , K. M. 1983 . Effect of aquatic macrophytes on physico‐chemical parameters of agricultural drainage water . J. Aquat. Plant Manage. , 21 : 1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chescheir , G. M. , Gilliam , J. W. and Skaggs , R. W. 1991 . Nutrient and sediment removal in forested wetlands receiving pumped agricultural drainage water . Wetlands , 11 : 87
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliam , J. W. , Chescheir , G. M. , Skaggs , R. W. and Broadhead , R. G. 1988 . “ Effects of pumped agricultural drainage water on wetland water quality ” . In The Ecology and Management of Wetlands, Management, Use, and Value of Wetlands , Edited by: Hook , D. D. Vol. 2 , 275 Portland, OR : Timber Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chescheir , G. M. , Skaggs , R. W. and Gilliam , J. W. 1992 . Evaluation of wetland buffer areas for treatment of pumped agricultural drainage water . Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. , 35 : 175
   Google Scholar
• Blacklund, V. personal communication, 1991
   Google Scholar