291
Views
46
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Dioxins and furans in sewage sludges: A review of their occurrence and sources in sludge and of their environmental fate, behavior, and significance in sludge‐amended agricultural systems

&
Pages 1-86 | Published online: 09 Jan 2009

References

  • Adriaens , P. and Grbic‐Galic , D. 1994 . Reductive dechlorination of PCDD/F by anaerobic cultures and sediments . Chemosphere , 29 : 2253 – 2259 .
  • Alcock , R. E. , McGrath , S. P. and Jones , K. C. 1995 . The influence of multiple sewage sludge amendments on the PCB content of an agricultural soil over time . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 14 : 553 – 560 .
  • Alder , L. , Beck , H. , Mathar , W. and Palavinskas , R. 1994 . PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and other organochlorine compounds in human milk: levels and their dynamics in Germany . Organohalogen Compd. , 21 : 39 – 44 .
  • Ahlborg , U. and Hanberg , A. 1994 . Toxic equivalent factors for dioxin like PCBs . Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. , 1 : 67 – 68 .
  • Ahlborg , U. , Brouwer , A. , Fingerhut , M. , Jacobson , J. , Jacobson , S. , Kennedy , S. , Kettrup , A. , Koeman , J. , Poiger , H. , Rappe , C. , Safe , S. , Seegal , R. , Tuomisto , J. and Berg , M. 1992 . Impact of PCDD/Fs and PCBs on human and environmental health, with special emphasis on application of the TEF concept . J. Pharmacol. , 228 : 179 – 199 .
  • Ahlborg , U. , Becking , G. , Birnbaum , L. , Brouwer , A. , Derks , H. , Feeley , M. , Golor , G. , Hanberg , A. , Larsen , J. , Liem , A. , Safe , S. , Schlatter , C. , Waem , F. , Younes , M. and Yrjanheikki , E. 1994 . Toxic equivalency factors for dioxin like PCBs . Chemosphere , 28 : 1049 – 1067 .
  • Ambidge , P. F. 1990 . Acceptance criteria for analytical data on polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans . Chemosphere , 21 : 999 – 1006 .
  • Air Pollution Abatement Review Group (APARG) . 1995 . Report on the Abatement of Toxic Organic MicroPollutants (TOMPS) , Culham, Oxfordshire : AEA Technology, National Environmental Technology Centre .
  • Basier , A. 1994 . Regulatory measures in the Federal Republic of Germany to reduce the exposure of man and the environment to dioxins . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 567 – 570 .
  • Beck , A. J. , Johnston , A. E. and Jones , K. C. 1993a . Movement of nonionic organic chemicals in agricultural soils . Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. , 23 : 219 – 248 .
  • Beck , A. J. , Jones , K. C. , Hayes , M. B. H. and Mingelgrin , U. , eds. 1993 . Organic Substances in Soil and Water: Natural Constituents and Their Influences on Contaminant Behaviour , Cambridge : Royal Society of Chemistry .
  • Beck , A. J. , Wilson , S. C. , Alcock , R. E. and Jones , K. C. 1995 . Kinetic constraints on the loss of organic chemicals from contaminated soils: implications for soil quality limits . Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. , 25 : 1 – 43 .
  • Bell and Failey . 1991 . “ Plant uptake of organic pollutants ” . In Organic Contaminants in the Environment , Edited by: Jones , K. C. 189 – 206 . London : Elsevier .
  • Broman , D. , Naf , C. , Rolff , C. and Zebuhr , Y. 1990 . Analysis of polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) in soil and digested sewage sludge from Stockholm, Sweden . Chemosphere , 21 : 1213 – 1220 .
  • Bruce , M. and Davis , R. 1989 . Sewage sludge disposal: current and future options . Water Sci. Technol. , 21 : 1113 – 1128 .
  • Bumpus , J. , Tien , M. , Wright , D. and Aust , S. 1985 . Oxidation of persistent environmental pollutants by a white rot fungus . Science , 228 : 1434 – 1436 .
  • Buttigieg , A. , Klessa , D. and Hall , D. 1990 . The Contamination of Herbage Following the Application of Sewage Sludge to Pasture , Rep. No. FR 0078 Water Research Centre .
  • Commission of the European Communities (CEC) . 1986 . Council directive (12/06/86) on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture . Official Journal of the European Communities , Directive 86/278/EEC, No L 181/6–12
  • Consultants in Environmental Sciences (CES) . 1988 . Timber Preservation Chemicals , Volume la‐Final Report Department of the Environment, Consultants in Environmental Sciences . Contract PECD 7/7/238 for
  • Consultants in Environmental Sciences (CES). (1993).
  • Creaser , C. , Fernandes , A. , Haddad , A. , Harrad , S. , Homer , R. , Skett , P. and Cox , E. 1989 . Survey of background levels of PCDD/Fs in UK soils . Chemosphere , 18 : 767 – 776 .
  • Creaser , C. , Fernandes , A. , Harrad , S. and Cox , E. 1990 . Levels and sources of PCDD/Fs in urban British soils . Chemosphere , 21 : 931 – 938 .
  • Czuczwa , J. M. and Hites , R. A. 1986 . Airborne dioxins and dibenzofurans: sources and fates . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 20 : 195 – 200 .
  • Department of the Environment (DoE) . 1989a . Code of Practice for Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge , London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office .
  • Department of the Environment (DoE) . 1989b . Dioxins in the Environment , Pollut. Pap. No. 27 London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office .
  • Department of the Environment (DoE) . 1993a . The examination of sewage sludges for polychlo‐rinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and poly chlorinated dibenzofurans , Foundation for Water Research FR/D 0009 .
  • Department of the Environment (DoE) . 1993b . UK Report to the European Community Commission under Directive 86/278/EEC
  • Di Domenico , A. , Silano , V. , Viviano , G. and Zapponi , G. 1980a . Accidental release of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD at Seveso, Italy, IV. Vertical distribution of TCDD in soil . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. , 4 : 327 – 338 .
  • Di Domenico , A. , Silano , V. , Viviano , G. and Zapponi , G. 1980b . Accidental release of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD at Seveso, Italy. II. TCDD distribution in soil surface layer . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. , 4 : 298 – 320 .
  • Di Domenico , A. , Silano , V. , Viviano , G. and Zapponi , G. 1980c . Accidental release of 2, 3, 7, 8‐tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin (TCDD) at Seveso, Italy. V. Environmental persistence of TCDD in soil . Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. , 4 : 339 – 345 .
  • Di Domenico , A. , Cerlesi , S. and Ratti , S. 1990 . A two‐exponential model to describe the vanishing trend of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD in the soil at Seveso, Northern Italy . Chemosphere , 20 : 1559 – 1566 .
  • Duarte‐Davidson , R. and Jones , K. C. 1994 . Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the UK population: estimated intake, exposure and body burden . Sci. Total Environ. , 151 : 131 – 152 .
  • Duarte‐Davidson , R. , Harrad , S. J. , Allen , S. , Sewart , A. and Jones , K. C. 1993 . The relative contribution of individual PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs to toxic equivalent values derived for ulked human adipose tissue samples from Wales, United Kingdom . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 24 : 100 – 107 .
  • Duarte‐Davidson , R. , Clayton , P. , Davis , B. , Halsall , C. , Jones , K. C. and Jones , P. 1994 . PCDDs and PCDFs in British urban air and deposition . Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. , 1 : 262 – 270 .
  • Duarte‐Davidson , R. , Wilson , S. , Alcock , R. E. and Jones , K. C. 1995 . Identification of Priority Organic Contaminants in Sewage Sludge , Report to the Department of the Environment UK Water Industry Research Ltd. .
  • Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) . 1995 . A Review of Dioxin Emissions in the UK London
  • Fernandes , A. R. , Timmis , R. and Dawes , C. 1994 . An investigation of terrestrial dioxin distributions with respect to secondary non‐ferrous refiners . Chemosphere , 29 : 2147 – 2156 .
  • Fiedler , H. 1994 . Sources of PCDD/PCDF and impact on the environment . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 229 – 236 .
  • Freeman , R. and Schroy , J. 1985 . Environmental mobility of TCDD . Chemosphere , 14 : 873 – 876 .
  • Freeman , R. and Schroy , J. 1989 . Comparison of the rate of TCDD transport at Times Beach and at Eglin Air Force Base . Chemosphere , 18 : 1305 – 1312 .
  • Fries , G. F. 1991 . “ Organic contaminants in terrestrial foodchains ” . In Organic Contaminants in the Environment , Edited by: Jones , K. C. 207 – 236 . London : Elsevier .
  • Fries , G. F. and Paustenbach , D. J. 1990 . Evaluation of potential transmission of 2, 3, 7, 8‐tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin contaminated incinerator emissions to humans via foods . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 29 : 1 – 43 .
  • Fries , G. , Marrow , G. and Snow , P. A. 1982 . Soil ingestion by dairy cattle . J. Dairy Sci. , 65 : 611 – 618 .
  • Fürst , P. , Fürst , C. and Groebel , W. 1990 . Levels of PCDDs and PCDFs in foodstuffs from the Federal Republic of Germany . Chemosphere , 20 : 787 – 792 .
  • Fürst , P. , Fürst , C. and Wilmers , K. 1992 . Survey of dairy products for PCDD/Fs, PCBs and HCB . Chemosphere , 25 : 1039 – 1048 .
  • Fürst , P. , Krause , S. , Hein , D. , Delschen , T. and Wilmers , K. 1993 . PCDD/F in cow's milk in relation to their levels in grass and soil . Chemosphere , 27 : 1349 – 1357 .
  • Gihr , R. , Klopffer , W. , Rippen , G. and Partscht , H. 1991 . Investigations on potential sources of PCDD/Fs in sewage sludges . Chemosphere , 23 : 1653 – 1659 .
  • Hagenmaier , H. 1988 . Investigation into PCDD/F Levels and Selected Chlorohydrocarbons in Sewage Sludges , Waste Management Res. Rep. 103 03 305 Federal Environmental Office . commissioned by the
  • Hagenmaier , H. and Brunner , H. 1987 . Isomer specific analysis of PCP and PCP‐Na for 2, 3, 7, 8‐substituted PCDD/F at sub ppb levels . Chemosphere , 16 : 1759 – 1764 .
  • Hagenmaier , H. , Brunner , H. , Haag , R. and Berchtold , A. 1986 . PCDD/Fs in sewage sludge, river and lake sediments from southwest Germany . Chemosphere , 15 : 1421 – 1428 .
  • Hagenmaier , H. , She , J. , Benz , T. , Dawidowsky , N. , Dusterhoft , L. and Lindig , C. 1992 . Analysis of sewage sludge for PCDD/Fs and diphenylethers . Chemosphere , 25 : 1457 – 1462 .
  • Hagenmaier , H. , Lindig , C. and She , J. 1994 . Correlation of environmental occurrence of polychlo‐rinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and dibenzofurans with possible sources . Chemosphere , 29 : 2163 – 2174 .
  • Harrad , S. J. and Jones , K. C. 1992 . A source inventory and budget for chlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) and furans (PCDFs) in the UK environment . Sci. Total Environ. , 126 : 89 – 107 .
  • Harrison , N. , Gem , M. G. de M. and Startin , J. R. 1994 . Dioxins in milk: a case study on localized contamination . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 69 – 72 .
  • Hobbs , S. , Howe , P. and Dobson , S. 1991 . Environmental hazard assessment: pentachlorophenol , Directorate for Air, Climate and Toxic Substances, Department of the Environment . EPTS/10D
  • Horstmann , M. 1994 . Untersuchungen zu nicht‐industriellen Quellen von Polychlorierten Dibenzo‐p‐Dioxinen (PCDD) und Polychlorierten Dibenzofuranen (PCDF) in einem Kommunalen Entwässerungssystem , Germany : University of Bayreuth . Ph.D. dissertation, Verlag Shaker
  • Horstmann , M. and McLachlan , M. S. 1994a . Textiles as a source of PCDD/Fs in human skin and sewage sludge . Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. , 1 : 15 – 20 .
  • Horstmann , M. and McLachlan , M. S. 1994b . Polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and dibenzofurans in textile and their transfer to human skin, sewage sludge and other matrices . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 251 – 254 .
  • Horstmann , M. , Kaune , A. , McLachlan , M. , Reissinger , M. and Hutzinger , O. 1992a . Temporal variability of PCDD/F concentrations in sewage sludge . Chemosphere , 25 : 1463 – 1468 .
  • Horstmann , M. , McLachlan , M. S. and Reissinger , M. 1992b . Investigations of the origin of PCDD/F in municipal sewage sludge . Organohalogen Compd. , 9 : 97 – 100 .
  • Horstmann , M. , McLachlan , M. S. and Reissinger , M. 1993 . Further investigations of the sources of PCDD/F in municipal sewage sludge . Organohalogen Compd. , 11 : 293 – 296 .
  • Hiilster , A. and Marschner , H. 1993 . Transfer of PCDD/PCDF from contaminated soils to food and fodder crop plants . Chemosphere , 27 : 439 – 446 .
  • Hiilster , A. and Marschner , H. 1994 . The influence of root exudates on the uptake of PCDD/PCDF by plants . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 31 – 34 .
  • Hiilster , A. , Muller , J. and Marschner , H. 1994 . Soil‐plant transfer of PCDD/Fs to vegetables of the cucumber family (cucurbitaceae) . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 28 : 1110 – 1115 .
  • Hutzinger , O. , McLachlan , M. S. , Reissinger , M. , Horstmann , M. , Kaune , A. and Buresch , H. 1992 . Report on a Research Project Commissioned by the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology (BMFT) Germany
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) . 1987 . Overall Evaluation of Carcinogenicity: An Updating of IARC Monographs Vol. 1–42 , Lyon, , France
  • Jackson , A. P. and Eduljee , G. H. 1994 . An assessment of the risks associated with PCDDs and PCDFs following the application of sewage sludge to agricultural land in the UK . Chemosphere , 29 : 2523 – 2543 .
  • Jones , D. , Safe , S. , Morcom , E. , Holcomb , M. , Coppock , C. and Ivie , W. 1989 . Bioavailability of grain and soil borne tritiated 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD administered to lactating holstein cows . Chemo‐sphere , 18 : 1257 – 1263 .
  • Jones , K. C. and Bennett , B. G. 1989 . Human exposure to environmental polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and dibenzofurans: an exposure commitment assessment for 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD . Sci. Total Environ. , 78 : 99 – 116 .
  • Jones , K. C. and Wild , S. R. 1991 . Organic Chemicals Entering Agricultural Soils in Sewage Sludges: Screening for their Potential to Transfer to Crop Plants and Livestock , Rep. No. FR 0169 Marlow, Bucks : Foundation for Water Research .
  • Jones , K. C. , Duarte‐Davidson , R. and Harrad , S. J. 1995 . PCDD/Fs in Air, Deposition and Herbage Around the Coalite Works, Bolsover, Derbyshire , Report on HMIP contract PECD 7/ 9/660
  • Jones , K. C. and Alcock , R. E. 1996 . Dioxin Inputs to the Environment: A Review of Temporal Trend Data and Proposals for a Monitoring Programme to Detect Past and Future Change in the UK , Report to the Department of the Environment London
  • Kapila , S. , Yanders , A. , Orazio , C. , Meadows , J. , Cerlesi , S. and Clevenger , T. 1989 . Field and laboratory studies on the movement and fate of TCDD in soil . Chemosphere , 18 : 1297 – 1304 .
  • Kieatiwong , S. , Nguyen , L. , Herbert , V. , Hackett , M. and Miller , G. 1990 . Photolysis of dioxins in organic solvents and on soils . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 24 : 1575 – 1580 .
  • Kimbrough , R. D. , Falk , H. , Stehr , P. and Fries , G. F. 1984 . Health implications of 2, 3, 7, 8‐tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) contamination of residential soil . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 14 : 47 – 93 .
  • Kjeller , L.‐O. , Jones , K. C. , Johnston , A. E. and Rappe , C. 1991 . Increases in the polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxin and‐furan content of soils and vegetation since the 1840s . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 25 : 1619 – 1627 .
  • Kjeller , L.‐O. , Jones , K. C. , Johnston , A. E. and Rappe , C. 1996 . Evidence for a decline in atmospheric emissions of PCDD/Fs in the UK . Environ. Sci. Technol. , in press
  • Krijgsman , M. 1993 . European policy on dioxins: past, present and future. Proc. Dioxin 1993 . Organohalogen Compd. , 12 : 1 – 5 .
  • Lorber , M. , Cleverly , D. , Schaum , J. , Phillips , L. , Schweer , G. and Leighton , T. 1994 . Development and validation of an air‐to‐beef food chain model for dioxin‐like compounds . Sci. Total Environ. , 156 : 39 – 65 .
  • Mackay , D. , Shiu , W. and Ma , K. 1992 . Illustrated Handbook of Physical‐Chemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals , PAHs and PCDD/Fs. Vol. 2 , Lewis
  • McLachlan , M. S. 1992 . Exposure toxicity equivalents (ETEs): a plea for more environmental chemistry in dioxin risk assessment . Organohalogen Compd. , 10 : 327 – 330 .
  • McLachlan , M. 1993 . Mass balance of polychlorinated biphenyls and other organochlorine compounds in a lactating cow . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 41 : 474 – 480 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. 1994 . Model of the fate of hydrophobic contaminants in cows . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 28 : 2407 – 2414 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. and Hutzinger , O. 1990 . Accumulation of organochlorine compounds in agricultural food chains . Organohalogen Compd. , 1 : 479 – 484 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. and Reissinger , M. 1990 . The influence of sewage sludge fertilization on the PCDD/F concentration in soil. An example from northeastern Bavaria . Organohalogen Compd. , 1 : 577 – 582 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. , Thoma , H. , Reissinger , M. and Hutzinger , O. 1990 . PCDD/F in an agricultural food chain. I. PCDD/F mass balance of a lactating cow . Chemosphere , 20 : 1013 – 1020 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. , Hinkel , M. , Reissinger , M. , Hippelein , M. and Kaupp , H. 1994 . A study of the influence of sewage sludge fertilization on the concentrations of PCDD/F and PCB in soil and milk . Environ. Pollut. , 85 : 337 – 343 .
  • McLachlan , M. S. , Sewart , A. P. , Bacon , J. and Jones , K. C. 1996 . Persistence of PCDD/Fs in sludge‐amended soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. , in press
  • Meharg , A. A. and Osborn , D. 1995 . Dioxins released from chemical accidents . Nature , 375 : 353 – 354 .
  • Miller , G. , Hebert , V. , Miille , M. , Mitzel , R. and Zepp , R. 1989 . Photolysis of OCDD on soils: production of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD . Chemosphere , 18 : 1265 – 1274 .
  • Ministry of Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) . 1988 . The British Diet: Finding the Facts , Food Surveillance Pap. No. 23 London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office .
  • Ministry of Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) . 1991 . Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water , London : MAFF Publications .
  • Ministry of Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) . 1992 . Dioxins in Food , Food Surveillance Paper No. 31 London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office .
  • Muir , D. C. G. , Yarechewski , A. L. , Corbet , R. L. , Webster , G. R. B. and Smith , A. E. 1985 . Laboratory and field studies on the fate of 1, 3, 6, 8 tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin in soil and sediments . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 33 : 518 – 523 .
  • Müller , J. F. , Hülster , A. , Päpke , O. , Ball , M. and Marschner , H. 1994 . Transfer of PCDD/PCDF from contaminated soils into carrots, lettuce and peas . Chemosphere , 29 : 2175 – 2181 .
  • Murphy , B. 1989 . Modeling the leaching and transport of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD from incinerator ash from landfills . Chemosphere , 19 : 433 – 438 .
  • Naf , C. , Broman , D. , Ishaq , R. and Zebuhr , Y. 1990 . PCDDs and PCDFs in water, sludge and air samples from various levels in a waste water treatment plant with respect to composition changes and total flux . Chemosphere , 20 : 1503 – 1510 .
  • National Academy of Sciences (NAS) . 1986 . Predicting Feed Intake of Food‐Producing Animals , Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press .
  • NATO/CCMS . 1988 . “ International Toxicity Equivalent Factor (I‐TEF). Method of risk assessment for complex mixtures of dioxins and related compounds ” . In Pilot study on international information exchange on dioxins and related compounds , Rep. no. 176
  • Newstead , S. and Gemmill , R. J. 1994 . Regulatory control of dioxin releases in the UK . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 581 – 586 .
  • Northumbrian Water . 1994 . PCDD/Fs in selected sewage sludges . Personal communication
  • Nygren , M. , Yrjanheikki , E. , Ersboell , A. , Carle , J. and Startin , J. R. 1993 . World Health Organisation 3rd International Intercalibration Study on PCBs, Dioxins and Furans in Human Milk, Blood, Cow's Milk and Fish . Organohalogen Compd. , 11 : 27 – 30 .
  • Oberg , L. G. , Glas , B. , Swanson , S. , Rappe , C. and Paul , K. 1990 . Peroxidase‐catalyzed oxidation of chlorophenols to PCDD/Fs . Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 19 : 930 – 938 .
  • Oberg , L. G. , Andersson , R. and Rappe , C. 1992 . De novo formation of hepta‐and octa‐CDDs from pentachlorophenols in municipal sewage sludge . Organohalogen Compd. , 9 : 351 – 354 .
  • Oberg , L. G. , Wagman , N. , Koch , M. and Rappe , C. 1994 . Polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins, dibenzofurans and non‐ortho PCBs in household organic waste compost and mature garden waste compost . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 245 – 250 .
  • Olde Venterink , H. G. M. and Linders , J. B. H. J. 1994 . Standards for the Concentrations of Organic Micro Contaminants in Organic Fertilisers: A Proposal for Their Derivation , Biltoven, , The Netherlands : National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection .
  • Orazio , C. E. , Kapila , S. , Puri , R. K. and Yanders , A. F. 1992 . Persistence of chlorinated dioxins and furans in the soil environment . Chemosphere , 25 : 1469 – 1474 .
  • Orban , J. E. , Stanley , J. S. , Schwemberger , J. G. and Remmers , J. C. 1994 . Dioxins and dibenzofurans in adipose tissue of the general U.S. population and selected sub‐populations . Am. J. Publ. Health , 84 : 439 – 445 .
  • Passant . 1993 . Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Stationary Sources in the UK , Warren Spring Laboratory .
  • Patterson , S. , Mackay , D. and McFarlane , C. 1994 . A model of organic chemical uptake by plants from soil and the atmosphere . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 28 : 2259 – 2266 .
  • Pignatello , J. J. 1993 . “ Recent advances in sorption kinetics ” . In Organic Substances in Soil and Water: Natural Constituents and Their Influences on Contaminant Behaviour , Edited by: Beck , A. J. , Jones , K. C. , Hayes , M. B. H. and Mingelgrin , U. 128 – 140 . Cambridge : Royal Society of Chemistry .
  • Pignatello , J. J. and Huang , L. Q. 1991 . Reactions and movement of organic chemicals in soils . J. Environ. Quai , 20 : 222 – 230 .
  • Podoll , R. , Jaber , H. and Mill , T. 1986 . TCDD: rates of volatilisation and photolysis in the environment . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 20 : 490 – 492 .
  • Prinz , B. , Krause , G. and Radaermacher , L. 1990 . Criteria for the evaluation of dioxins in garden soils and garden plants . Organohalogen Compd. , 1 : 595 – 600 .
  • Puri , R. , Clevenger , T. , Kapila , S. , Yanders , A. and Malhotra , R. 1989 . Studies of parameters affecting translocation of TCDD in soil . Chemosphere , 18 : 1291 – 1296 .
  • Puri , R. , Kapila , S. , Yun‐Hsieh , L. , Orazio , C. , Clevenger , T. and Yanders , A. 1990 . Effect on co‐contaminants on the disposition of PCDD/Fs in saturated soils . Chemosphere , 20 : 1589 – 1596 .
  • Rappe , C. and Kjeller , L.‐O. 1994 . PCDDs and PCDFs in the environment: historical trends and budget calculations . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 1 – 8 .
  • Rappe , C. , Nygren , M. and Lindstrom , G. 1987 . Polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and other chlorinated contaminants in cow milk from various locations in Switzerland . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 21 : 964 – 970 .
  • Rappe , C. , Kjeller , L.‐O. and Andersson , R. 1989 . Analysis of PCDDs and PCDFs in sludge and water samples . Chemosphere , 19 : 13 – 20 .
  • Rappe , C. , Andersson , R. , Lundstrom , K. and Wiberg , K. 1990 . Levels of PCDD/Fs in commercial detergents and related products . Chemosphere , 21 : 43 – 50 .
  • Rappe , C. , Andersson , R. , Karlaganis , G. and Bonjour , R. 1994 . PCDDs and PCDFs in samples of sewage sludge from various areas in Switzerland . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 79 – 84 .
  • Rotard , W. , Christmann , W. and Knoth , W. 1994 . Background levels of PCDD/F in soils of Germany . Chemosphere , 29 : 2193 – 2200 .
  • Safe , S. 1990 . PCBs, PCDFs and related compounds: environmental mechanistic considerations which support the development of TEFs . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 21 : 51 – 88 .
  • Schecter , A. , Startin , J. , Wright , C. , Kelly , M. , Päpke , O. , Lis , A. , Ball , M. and Olson , J. 1994 . Dioxins in U.S. food and estimated daily intake . Chemosphere , 29 : 2261 – 2265 .
  • Scheunen , I. and Mansour , M. 1992 . Binding of organic pollutants to soil organic matter . Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. , 46 : 189 – 199 .
  • Schulz , D. 1993 . PCDD/F‐German policy and measures to protect man and the environment . Chemosphere , 27 : 501 – 507 .
  • Schulz , D. 1994 . Further measures to further reduce dioxin impact on man and the environment in the Federal Republic of Germany . Chemosphere , 29 : 2439 – 2454 .
  • Schwarz , K. and McLachlan , M. S. 1993 . The fate of PCDD/F in sewage sludge applied to an agricultural soil . Organohalogen Compd. , 12 : 155 – 158 .
  • Sewart , A. P. 1995 . The Fate and Behaviour of Polychlorinated Dibenzo‐p‐dioxins, Dibenzofurans and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Sewage Sludge Amended Agricultural Soils and Their Potential Transfer into the Terrestrial Foodchain via Lactating Cattle , University of Lancaster . Ph.D. dissertation
  • Sewart , A. , Harrad , S. J. , McLachlan , M. S. , McGrath , S. P. and Jones , K. C. 1995 . PCDD/Fs and non‐o‐PCBs in digested U.K. sewage sludges . Chemosphere , 30 : 51 – 67 .
  • She , J. and Hagenmaier , H. 1994 . PCDDs and PCDFs with chloroalkali pattern in soil and sludge samples . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 261 – 266 .
  • Stark , B. A. and Hall , J. E. 1992 . “ Implications of sewage sludge application to pasture on the intake of contaminants by grazing animals ” . In Effects of Organic Contaminants in Sewage Sludge on Soil Fertility, Plants and Animals , Edited by: Hall , J. E. , Sauerbeck , D. R. and L'Hermite , P. 134 – 157 . Brussels : Commission of the European Communities .
  • Startin , J. , Rose , M. , Wright , C. and Gilbert , J. 1990 . Surveillance of British foods for PCDD/Fs . Chemosphere , 20 : 793 – 798 .
  • Startin , J. , Rose , M. and Offen , C. 1989 . Survey of the background levels of PCDD/Fs in UK vegetation . Chemosphere , 19 : 531 – 534 .
  • Startin , J. R. , Wright , C. , Kelly , M. and Harrison , N. 1994a . Depletion rates of PCDDs in bull calf tissues . Organohalogen Compd. , 21 : 347 – 350 .
  • Startin , J. R. , Wright , C. , Kelly , M. , Rose , M. and Harrison , N. 1994b . Levels of PCDD and PCDF congeners in milk from farms near Bolsover, UK . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 151 – 154 .
  • Su , S. H. , Carlson‐Lynch , H. and Wenning , R. J. Source apportionment of 2, 3, 7, 8‐substituted dioxins and furans in municipal sewage sludge using multivariate fingerprinting analysis . Poster presentation at the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry meeting . Denver, Colorado.
  • Svensson , A. , Kjeller , L.‐O. and Rappe , C. 1989 . Enzyme‐mediated formation of 2, 3, 7, 8‐tetrasubstituted CDD/Fs . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 23 : 900 – 902 .
  • Telliard , W. , McCarty , H. , King , J. and Hoffman , J. 1990 . USEPA national sewage sludge survey results for PCDD/Fs . Organohalogen Compd. , 2 : 307 – 310 .
  • Textile Finishers Association . 1993 . Research and Development Towards Waste Minimisation and Effluent Treatment in the Textile Dyeing and Finishing Industry. I. Processes, Problems and Opportunities
  • Theelen , R. M. C. , Liem , A. K. D. , Slob , W. and Wijnen , J. H. 1993 . Intake of 2, 3, 7, 8 chlorine substituted dioxins, furans and planar PCBs from food in the Netherlands: median and distribution . Chemosphere , 27 : 1625 – 1635 .
  • Travis , C. and Arms , A. 1988 . Bioconcentration of organics in beef, milk and vegetation . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 22 : 271 – 274 .
  • Tysklind , M. , Carey , A. , Rappe , C. and Miller , G. 1992 . Photolysis of OCDD and OCDF on soil . Organohalogen Compd. , 8 : 293 – 296 .
  • Tuinsrra , L. , Roos , A. , Berende , P. , Rhijn , J. , Traag , W. and Mengelers , M. 1992 . Excretion of polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and‐furans in milk of cows fed on dioxins in the dry period . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 40 : 1772 – 1776 .
  • United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) . 1988 . National Sewage Sludge Survey Facility Analytical Results .
  • Wang , M. and Jones , K. C. 1994a . Uptake of chlorobenzenes by carrots from spiked and sewage‐sludge amended soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 28 : 1260 – 1267 .
  • Wang , M. and Jones , K. C. 1994b . Behaviour and fate of chlorobenzenes in spiked and sewage sludge‐amended soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 28 : 1843 – 1852 .
  • Wang , M. , McGrath , S. P. and Jones , K. C. 1995 . Chlorobenzenes in field soil with a history of multiple sewage sludge applications . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 29
  • Webster , T. and Connett , P. 1990 . The use of bioconcenrration factors in estimating the 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD content of cows milk . Chemosphere , 20 : 779 – 786 .
  • Weerasinghe , N. , Gross , M. and Lisk , D. 1985 . Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in sewage sludges . Chemosphere , 14 : 557 – 564 .
  • Welsch‐Pausch , K. , Umlauf , G. and McLachlan , M. S. 1993 . An investigation of the deposition pathways of atmospheric PCDD/F to a standardized grass culture . Organohalogen Compd. , 12 : 99 – 102 .
  • Wild , S. R. and Jones , K. C. 1992a . Organic chemicals entering agricultural soils in sewage sludges: screening for their potential to transfer to crop plants and livestock . Sci. Total Environ. , 119 : 85 – 119 .
  • Wild , S. R. and Jones , K. C. 1992b . Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon uptake by carrots grown in sludge‐amended soil . J. Environ. Qual. , 21 : 217 – 225 .
  • Wild , S. R. , Waterhouse , K. S. , McGrath , S. P. and Jones , K. C. 1990 . Organic contaminants in an agricultural soil with a known history of sewage sludge amendments: polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 24 : 1706 – 1711 .
  • Wild , S. R. , Harrad , S. J. and Jones , K. C. 1992 . Pentachlorophenol in the U.K. environment. I. A budget and source inventory . Chemosphere , 24 : 833 – 845 .
  • Wild , S. , Harrad , S. and Jones , K. C. 1994 . The influence of sewage sludge applications to agricultural land on human exposure to PCDD/Fs . Environ. Pollut. , 83 : 357 – 369 .
  • Winters , D. 1994 . A statistical survey of dioxin‐like compounds in the United States beef supply . Organohalogen Compd. , 20 : 73 – 77 .
  • World Health Organisation (WHO) . 1988 . PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in breast milk: assessment of health risks , Environmental Health Report 29 Copenhagen : Regional Office of Europe .
  • Yanders , A. , Orazio , C. , Puri , R. and Kapila , S. 1989 . On translocation of 2, 3, 7, 8‐TCDD: time dependent analysis at the Times Beach experimental site . Chemosphere , 19 : 429 – 432 .
  • Young , A. 1983 . “ Long‐term studies on the persistence and movement of TCDD in a natural ecosystem ” . In Human and Environmental Risks of Chlorinated Dioxins and Related Compounds , Edited by: Tucker , R. , Young , A. and Gray , A. 173 – 190 . New York : Plenum Press .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.