Barriers to safetyFootnote^*

* The term ‘barriers to safety’ is not commonly used in the literature. When we started our research we thought of using the more commonly found term ‘victim vulnerability’ or dimensions of vulnerability but we worried that it would be seen as blaming the victim for their own death. In most homicides we reviewed, victims had difficulty accessing support. The authors hoped that the term ‘barrier’ makes it clear that the challenges were often external. We recognize that even this term has problems within our definitions outlined in the text. For example, some victims had young children who added a complexity or barrier to separation and yet for other victims, children may have been a motivator to leave the abusive relationship and secure safe housing.

for victims of domestic homicide

References

• Abraham, M., & Tastsoglou, E. (2016). Addressing domestic violence in Canada and the United States: The uneasy co-habitation of women and the state. Current Sociology, 64(4), 568–585. doi: 10.1177/0011392116639221
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams, M. E., & Campbell, J. (2012). Being undocumented & intimate partner violence (IPV): Multiple vulnerabilities through the lens of feminist intersectionality. Women’s Health & Urban Life, 11 (1), 15–34. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/32411/1/11.1_Adams_%26_Campbell.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Alaggia, R., Regehr, C., & Rischynski, G. (2009). Intimate partner violence and immigration laws in Canada: How far have we come? International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32(1), 225–341. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.09.00
   Google Scholar
• Amanor-Boadu, Y., Messing, J. T., Stith, S. M., Anderson, J. R., O’Sullivan, C. S., & Campbell, J. C. (2012). Immigrant and nonimmigrant women: Factors that predict leaving an abusive relationship. Violence Against Women, 18(5), 611–633. doi: 10.1177/1077801212453139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belfrage, H., & Strand, S. (2008). Structured spousal violence risk assessment: Combining risk factors and victim vulnerability factors. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 7(1), 39–46. doi: 10.1080/14999013.2008.9914402
   Google Scholar
• Bender, K., & Roberts, A. R. (2007). Battered women versus male batterer typologies: Same or different based on evidence-based studies? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(5), 519–530. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2007.02.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black, M. (2011). Domestic violence and adverse health consequences: Implications for clinicians. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 5(5), 428–439. doi: 10.1177/1559827611410265
   Google Scholar
• Boyce, J., & Cotter, A. (2013). Homicide in Canada, 2012. Juristat, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85-002-X. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2013001/article/11882-eng.htm
   Google Scholar
• Burns, R. B., & Burns, R. A. (2009). Additional advanced chapters, Chapter 23, Cluster Analysis: 552–567. Business Research Methods and Statistics Using SPSS. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. (2001). Safety planning based on lethality assessment for partners of batterers in intervention programs. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 5(2), 129–143. doi:10.1300/J146v05n02_08
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. (2004). Helping women understand their risk in situations of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(12), 1464–1477. doi: 10.1177/0886260504269698
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. C., Glass, N., Sharps, P. W., Laughon, K., & Bloom, T. (2007). Intimate partner homicide: Review and implications of research and policy. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 8(3), 246–269. doi:10.1177/1524838007303505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Observatory on Homelessness. (2014). Homelessness 101: Homeless hub. Retrieved from http://homelesshub.ca/about-homelessness/homelessness-101/causes-homelessness
   Google Scholar
• Centre for Research and Education on Violence Against Women & Children. (2019). Neighbours, friends and families. Retrieved from http://www.neighboursfriendsandfamilies.ca/about/about-us
   Google Scholar
• Coker, A. L., Smith, P. H., Thompson, M. P., McKeown, R. E., Bethea, L., & Davis, K. E. (2002). Social support protects against the negative effects of partner violence on mental health. Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 11(5), 465–476. doi: 10.1089/15246090260137644
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1993). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. doi: 10.2307/1229039
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, M., (Ed.). (2017). Domestic homicides and death reviews: An international perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillian.
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, M., Bunge, V. P., & Balde, T. (2009). National trends in intimate partner homicides. Explaining declines in Canada, 1976 to 2001. Violence Against Women, 15(3), 276–306. doi: 10.1177/1077801208330433
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dawson, M., Jaffe, P., Campbell, M., Lucas, W., & Kerr, K. (2017). Canada. In M. Dawson (Ed.), Domestic homicides and death reviews: An international perspective (pp. 59–90). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Domestic Violence Death Review Committee. (2015). 2013-14 Annual report to the chief coroner. Toronto: Office of the Chief Coroner. Retrieved from https://www.mcscs.jus.gov.on.ca/sites/default/files/content/mcscs/docs/ec165340.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Dugan, L., Nagin, D. S., & Rosenfeld, R. (1999). Explaining the decline in intimate partner homicide: The effects of changing domesticity, women’s status, and domestic violence resources. Homicide Studies, 3(3), 187–214. doi: 10.1177/1088767999003003001
   Google Scholar
• Dugan, L., Rosenfeld, R., & Nagin, D. S. (2003). Exposure reduction or retaliation? The effects of domestic violence resources on intimate partner homicide. Law & Society Review, 37(1), 169–198. doi: 10.1111/1540-5893.3701005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairbairn, J., Jaffe, P., & Dawson, M. (2017). Challenges in defining domestic homicide: Considerations for research and practice. In M. Dawson (Ed.), Domestic homicides and death reviews: An International perspective (pp. 201–228). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Fallon, B., Trocmé, N., Fluke, J., MacLaurin, B., Tonmyr, L., & Yuan, Y. Y. (2010). Methodological challenges in measuring child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(1), 70–79. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.08.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2015). Crime in the United States. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/tables/expanded_homicide_data_table_10_murder_circumstances_by_relationship_2015.xls
   Google Scholar
• Few, A., & Rosen, K. (2005). Victims of chronic dating violence: How women’s vulnerabilities link to their decisions to stay. Family Relations, 54, 265–279. doi: 10.1111/j.0197-6664.2005.00021.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heise, L. (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4(3), 262–290. doi: 10.1177/1077801298004003002
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heise, L. (2011). What works to prevent partner violence: An evidence overview. London: STRIVE. Retrieved from http://strive.lshtm.ac.uk/resources/what-works-prevent-partner-violence-evidence-overview
   Google Scholar
• Huffhines, L., Tunno, A. M., Cho, B., Hambrick, E. P., Campos, I., Lichty, B., & Jackson, Y. (2016). Case file coding of child maltreatment: Methods, challenges, and innovations in a longitudinal project of youth in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 67, 254–262. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.06.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunnicutt, G. (2009). Varieties of patriarchy and violence against women: Resurrecting ‘patriarchy’ as a theoretical tool. Violence Against Women, 15(5), 553–573. doi: 10.1177/1077801208331246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. Released. (2016). IBM SPSS statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Knowledge Centre. Two-step cluster analysis. Retrieved from https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SSLVMB_22.0.0/com.ibm.spss.statistics.help/spss/base/idh_twostep_main.htm
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe, P. G., Campbell, M., Hamilton, L. H., & Juodis, M. (2012). Children in danger of domestic homicide. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36(1), 71–74. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffe, P. G., Johnston, J. R., Crooks, C. V., & Bala, N. (2008). Custody disputes involving allegations of domestic violence: Toward a differentiated approach to parenting plans. Family Court Review, 46(3), 500–522. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-1617.2008.00216.x
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe, P., Scott, K., Jenney, A., Dawson, M., Straatman, A. L., & Campbell, M. (2014). Risk factors for children in situations of family violence in the context of separation and divorce. Ottawa: Department of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Krause, E., Kaltman, S., Goodman, S., & Dutton, M. (2006). Role of distinct PTSD symptoms in intimate partner reabuse: A prospective study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(4), 507–516. doi: 10.1002/jts.20136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kropp, R., Hart, D., & Belfrage, H. (2005). Brief spousal assault form for the evaluation of risk (B-SAFER): User manual. Vancouver: ProActive ReSolutions.
   Google Scholar
• Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Kuijpers, K., Van der Knaap, L., & Lodewijks, I. (2011). Victim’s influence on intimate partner violence revictimization: A systematic review of prospective evidence. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 12(4), 198–219. doi: 10.1177/1524838011416378
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuijpers, K., Van der Knaap, L., & Winkel, F. (2012). Victims’ influence on intimate partner violence revictimization: An empirical test of dynamic victim-related factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(9), 1716–1742. doi: 10.1177/0886260511430389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, C. E., Horton, G. E., Johnson, C. H., Notestine, L., Garr, B., Pow, A. M., & Doom, E. (2015). Domestic violence service providers’ perceptions of safety planning: A focus group study. Journal of Family Violence, 30(3), 381–392. doi: 10.1007/s10896-015-9674-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Northcott, M. (2011). Domestic violence in rural Canada. Victims of Crime Research Digest, 4, 9–14.
   Google Scholar
• Obajasu, M., Palin, F., Jacobs, C., Anderson, P., & Kaslow, N. (2009). Won’t you be my neighbour? Using an ecological approach to examine the impact of community on revictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(1), 38–53. doi: 10.1177/0886260508314933
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pritchard, A. J., Reckdenwald, A., & Nordham, C. (2017). Nonfatal strangulation as part of domestic violence: A review of research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(4), 407–424. doi: 10.1177/1524838015622439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, M. (2013). Measuring violence against women: Statistical trends. 2013, Juristat, Statistics Canada Catalogue no. 85-002-X. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2013001/article/11766eng.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Sokoloff, N. J., & Dupont, I. (2005). Domestic violence at the intersections of race, class, and gender: Challenges and contributions to understanding violence against marginalized women in diverse communities. Violence Against Women, 11(1), 38–64. doi: 10.1177/1077801204271476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2009). Data and definitions. Government of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/21-006-x/2007007/6000446-eng.htm
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2013). Family violence in Canada: A statistical profile, 2013. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2013001/article/11805-eng.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2014). Homicide in Canada, 2014: Table 6. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2015001/article/14244/tbl/tbl06-eng.htm
   Google Scholar
• Storey, J., & Strand, S. (2017). The influence of victim vulnerability and gender on police officers’ assessment of intimate partner violence risk. Journal of Family Violence, 32(1), 125–134. doi: 10.1007/s10896-016-9905-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam, D. M., Tutty, L. M., Zhuang, Z. H., & Paz, E. (2016). Racial minority women and criminal justice responses to domestic violence. Journal of Family Violence, 31(4), 527–538. doi: 10.1007/s10896-015-9794-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Canada’s residential schools: The final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (Vol. 1). Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/77432
   Google Scholar