152
Views
46
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Article

Review
Biomarkers in Breath Condensate: A promising New Non-invasive Technique in Free Radical Research

&
Pages 1253-1266 | Received 16 Jul 2003, Published online: 07 Jul 2009

References

  • Rahman, I. and MacNee, W. (1996) "Role of oxidants/ antioxidants in smoking-induced airways diseases", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 21, 669–681.
  • Rahman, I. and MacNee, W. (1999) "Lung glutathione and oxidative stress: implications in cigarette smoke-induced airways disease", Am. J. Physiol. 277, L1067—L1088.
  • Rochelle, L.G., Fischer, B.M. and Adler, K.B. (1998) "Concurrent production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species by airway epithelial cells in vitro", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 24, 863–868.
  • Gutteridge, J.M.C. (1995) "Lipid peroxidation and antioxi-dants as biomarkers of tissue damage", Clin. Chem. 41, 1819–1828.
  • Church, T. and Pryor, W.A. (1985) "Free radical chemistry of cigarette smoke and its toxicological implications", Environ. Health Perspect. 64, 111–126.
  • Pryor, W.A. and Stone, K. (1993) "Oxidants in cigarette smoke: radicals, hydrogen peroxides, peroxynitrate, and peroxynitrite", Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 686, 12–28.
  • Nakayama, T., Church, D.F. and Pryor, W.A. (1989) "Quantitiative analysis of the hydrogen peroxide formed in aqueous cigarette tar extracts", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 7, 9–15.
  • Zang, L.Y., Stone, K. and Pryor, W.A. (1995) "Detection of free radicals in aqueous extracts of cigarette tar by electron spin resonance", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 19, 161–167.
  • Uchida, K., Shiraishi, M., Naito, Y, Toni, N., Nakamura, Y. and Osawa, T. (1999) "Activation of stress signaling pathways by the end product of lipid peroxidation", J. Biol. Chem. 274, 2234–2242.
  • Parola, M., Bellomo, G., Robino, G., Barrera, G. and Dianzani, M.U. (1999) "4-Hydroxynonenal as a biological signal: molecular basis and pathophysiological impli-cations", Antioxid. Redox Signal 1, 255–284.
  • Lawson, J.A., Rokach, J. and FitzGerald, G.A. (1999) "Isoprostanes: formation, analysis and use as indices of lipid peroxidation in vivo", J. Biol. Chem. 274, 24441–24444.
  • Reilly, M., Delanty, N., Lawson, J.A. and FitzGerald, G.A. (1996) "Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers", Circulation 94, 19–25.
  • Pratico, D., Basili, S., Vieri, M., Cordova, C., Violi, F. and FitzGerald, G.A. (1998) "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is associated with an increase in urinary levels of isoprostane F2-III, an index of oxidant stress", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158, 1709–1714.
  • Morrow, J.D. and Roberts, L.J. (1997) "The isoprostanes: unique bioactive products of lipid peroxidation", Prog. Lipid Res. 36, 1–21.
  • Esterbauer, H., Schaur, R.J. and Zollner, H. (1991) "Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malon-aldehyde and related aldehydes", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 11, 81–128.
  • Lam, C.W., Casanova, M. and Heck, H.D. (1985) "Depletion of nasal mucosal glutathione by acrolein and enhancement of formaldehyde-induced DNA-protein cross-linking by simultaneous exposure to acrolein", Arch. Toxicol. 58, 67–71.
  • Kehrer, J.P. and Biswal, S.S. (2000) "The molecular effects of acrolein", Toxicol. Sci. 57, 6–15.
  • Horvath, I. (2003) "Exhaled breath condensate contains more than only volatiles", Eur. Respir. J. 22, 187–188.
  • Montuschi, P. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Analysis of exhaled breath condensate for monitoring airway inflammation", Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 23, 232–237.
  • Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2001) "Exhaled markers of pulmonary disease", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 163, 1693–1722.
  • Montuschi, P. (2002) "Indirect monitoring of lung inflam-mation", Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 1, 238–242.
  • Scheideler, L., Manke, H.G., Schwulera, U., Inacker, 0. and Hammerle, H. (1993) "Detection of non-volatile macromol-ecules in breath. A possible diagnostic tool?", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148, 778–784.
  • Montuschi, E, Corradi, M., Giabattoni, G., Nightingale, J., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (1999) "Increased 8-isoprostane, a marker of oxidative stress, in exhaled condensate of asthma patients", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 216–220.
  • Mutlu, G.M., Carey, K.W., Robbins, R.A., Danziger, I.H. and Rubinstein, I. (2001) "Collection and analysis of exhaled breath condensate in humans", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 731–737.
  • Corradi, M., Rubinstein, I., Andreoli, R.I., Manini, P., Caglieri, A., Poli, D., Alinovi, R. and Mutti, A. (2003) "Aldehydes in exhaled breath condensate of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 1380–1386.
  • Griese, M., Latzin, P. and Beck, J. (2001) "A non-invasive method to collect nasally exhaled air condensate in humans of all ages", Fur. J. Clin. Investig. 31, 915–920.
  • Roberts, L.J. and Morrow, J.D. (2000) "Measurement of F2-isoprostanes as an index of oxidative stress in vivo", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 28, 505–513.
  • Janzen, E.G. (1984) "Spin trapping", Methods Enzymol. 105, 188–198.
  • Buettner, G.R. and Mason, R.P. (1990) "Spin-trapping methods for detecting superoxide and hydroxyl free radicals in vitro and in vivo", Methods Enzymol. 186, 127–133.
  • Berliner, L.J., Khramtsov, V, Fujii, H. and Clanton, T.L. (2001) "Unique in vivo applications of spin traps", Free Radic. Biol. Med. 30, 489–499.
  • Tordo, P. (1998) "Spin-trapping: recent developments and applications", Electron Paramagn. Resonance 16, 117–144.
  • Nicholson, J.K., Lindon, J.C. and Holmes, E. (1999) "Metabonomics: understanding the metabolic responses of living systems to pathophysiological stimuli via multi-variate statistical analysis of biological NMR spectroscopic data", Xenobiotica 29, 1181–1189.
  • Nicholson, J.K. and Wilson, ID. (1989) "High resolution proton NMR spectroscopy of biological fluids", Prog. NMR Spectrosc. 21, 449–501.
  • El-Deredy, W. (1997) "Pattern recognition approaches in biomedical and clinical magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a review", NMR Biomed. 10, 99–124.
  • Holmes, E., Foxall, P.J.D., Nicholson, J.K., Neild, G.H., Brown, S.M., Bieddell, C., Sweatman, B.C., Rahr, E., Lindon, J.C., Spraul, M. and Neidigm, P. (1994) "Automatic data reduction and pattern recognition methods for analysis of 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of human urine form normal and pathological states", Anal. Biochem. 220, 284–296.
  • Holmes, E., Nicholls, A.W. and Lindon, J.C. (2000) "Chemometric models for toxicity classification on NMR spectra of biofluids", Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13, 471–478.
  • Brindle, J.T., Antti, H., Homes, E., Tranter, G., Nicholson, J.K., Bethell, H.W.L., Clarke, S., Schofield, P.M., McKilligin, E., Mosedale, D.E. and Grainger, D.J. (2002) "Rapid and noninvasive diagnosis of the presence and severity of coronary heart disease using 1H-NMR-based meta-bonomics", Nat. Med. 8, 1439–1444.
  • Murtz, M., Frech, B. and Urban, W. (1999) "High resolution cavity leak-out absorption spectroscopy in the 10 region", Appl. Phys. 68, 243–249.
  • Hunt, J. (2002) "Exhaled breath condensate: an evolving tool for noninvasive evaluation of lung disease", J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 110, 28–34.
  • Horvath, I., Donnelly, L.E., Kiss, A., Kharitonov, S.A., Lim, S., Chung, F.K. and Barnes, P.J. (1998) "Combined use of exhaled hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide in monitoring asthma", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158, 1042–1046.
  • Effros, R.M., Hoagland, K.W., Bosbous, M., Castillo, D., Foss, B., Dunning, M., Lin, W. and Sun, F. (2002) "Dilution of respiratory solutes in exhaled condensates", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 663–669.
  • Vass, G., Huszar, E., Barat, E., Valyon, M., Kiss, D., Penzes, I., Augusztinovicz, M. and Horvath, I. (2003) "Comparison of nasal and oral inhalation during exhaled breath condensate collection", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 850–855.
  • Risby, T.H. (2003) "Further discussion on breath condensate analysis", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 1301–1302.
  • Hunt, J.F., Erwin, E., Palmer, L., Vaughan, J., Malhotra, N., Platts-Mills, TA. and Gaston, B. (2002) "Expression and activity of pH-regulatory glutaminase in the human airway epithelium", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 101–107.
  • Gessner, C., Kuhn, H., Seyfarth, H.-J., Pankau, H., Winkler, J., Schauer, J. and Wirtz, H. (2001) "Factors influencing breath condensate volume", Pneumologie 55, 414–419.
  • Dohlman, A.W., Black, H.R. and Royall, J. (1993) "Expired breath hydrogen peroxide is a marker of acute airway inflammation in paediatric patients with asthma", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148, 955–960.
  • Nowak, D., Kasielski, M., Pietras, T., Bialasiewicz, P. and Antczak, A. (1998) "Cigarette smoking does not increase hydrogen peroxide levels in expired breath condensate of patients with stable COPD", Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis. 53, 268–273.
  • Nowak, D., Antczak, A., Krol, M., Pietras, T., Shariati, B., Bialasiewicz, P., Jeczkowski, K. and Kula, P. (1996) "Increased content of hydrogen peroxide in expired breath of cigarette smokers", Fur. Respir. J. 9, 652–657.
  • Dekhuijzen, P.N., Aben, K.K., Dekker, I., Aarts, L.P., Wielders, EL., van Herwaarden, CI. and Bast, A. (1996) "Increased exhalation of hydrogen peroxide in patients with stable and unstable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154, 813–816.
  • Hoidal, J.R., Fox, R.B., LeMarbe, PA., Perri, R. and Repine, J.E. (1981) "Altered oxidative metabolic responses in vitro of alveolar macrophages from asymptomatic cigarette smo-kers", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 123, 85–89.
  • Deaton, CM., Marlin, D.J., Roberts, CA. and Schroter, R.C. (2003) "Breath condensate hydrogen peroxide correlates with both airway cytology and epithelial lining fluid ascorbic acid concentration", Free Radic. Res., (Submitted for Publication).
  • Wilhelm, J., Vankova, M., Maxova, H. and Siskova, A. (2003) "Hydrogen peroxide production by alveolar macrophages is increased and its concentration is elevated in the breath of rats exposed to hypoxia: relationship to lung lipid peroxidation", Physiol. Res. 52, 327–332.
  • Antczak, A., Kurmanowska, Z., Kasielski, M. and Nowak, D. (2000) "Inhaled glucocorticosteroids decrease hydrogen peroxide in expired air condensate in asthmatic children", Respir. Med. 94, 416–421.
  • Jobsis, Q., Raatgeep, H.C., Hermans, P.W.M. and de Jongste, J.C. (1997) "Hydrogen peroxide in exhaled air is increased in stable asthmatic children", Fur. Respir. J. 10, 519–521.
  • Sandrini, A., Ferreira, I.M., Jardim, J.R., Zamel, N. and Chapman, KR. (2003) "Effect of nasal triamcinolone acetonide on lower airway inflammatory markers in patients with allergic rhinitis", J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 111, 313–320.
  • Kietzman, D., Kah, R., Muller, M., Burchardi, H. and Kettler, D. (1993) "Hydrogen peroxide in expired breath condensate of patients with acute respiratory failure and with ARDS", Intensive Care Med. 19, 78–81.
  • Kasielski, M. and Nowak, D. (2001) "Long-term adminis-tration of N-acetylcysteine decreases hydrogen peroxide exhalation in subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Respir. Med. 95, 448–456.
  • Antczak, A. and Gorski, E (2000) "Antibiotic treatment decreases hydrogen peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances in expired air condensate in infectious exacerbation of bronchial asthma", Int. Rev. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 6, 52–55.
  • Luczynska, M., Szkudlarek, U., Dziankowska-Barthowiak, B., Waszczykowska, E., Kasielski, M., Sysa-Jedrzejowska, A. and Nowak, D. (2003) "Elevated exhalation of hydrogen peroxide in patients with systemic sclerosis", Fur. J. Clin. Investig. 33, 274–279.
  • van Beurden, W.J., Harff, GA., Dekhuijzen, P.N., van den Bosch, M.J., Creemers, J.P. and Smeenk, F.W. (2002) "An efficient and reproducible method for measuring hydrogen peroxide in exhaled breath condensate", Respir. Med. 96, 197–203.
  • Jobsis, R.Q., Schellekens, S.L., Fakkel-Kroesbergen, A., Raatgeep, R.H. and de Jongste, J.C. (2001) "Hydrogen peroxide in breath condensate during a common cold", Mediat. Inflamm. 10, 351–354.
  • Ruch, W., Cooper, P.H. and Baggiolini, M. (1983) "Assay of H202 production by macrophages and neutrophils with homovanillic acid and horse-radish peroxidase", J. Immunol. Methods 63, 347–357.
  • Alving, K., Weitzberg, E. and Lundberg, J.M. (1993) "Increased amount of nitric oxide in exhaled air of asthmatics", Fur. Respir. J. 6, 1368–1370.
  • Silkoff, P.E., Sylvester, J.T., Zamel, N. and Permutt, S. (2000) "Airway nitric oxide diffusion in asthma: role in pulmonary function and bronchial responsiveness", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 1218–1228.
  • Ashutosh, K. (2000) "Nitric oxide and asthma: a review", Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 6, 21–25.
  • Beckman, D.L., Mehta, P., Hanks, V, Rowan, W.H. and Liu, L. (2000) "Effects of peroxynitrite on pulmonary edema and the oxidative state", Exp. Lung Res. 26, 349–359.
  • Silkof, P., McClean, P., Slutsky, A.S., Caramori, M., Chap-man, K., Gutierrrez, C. and Zamel, N. (1998) "Exhaled nitric oxide and bronchial reactivity during and after inhaled beclomethasone in mild asthma", J. Asthma 35, 473–479.
  • Kharitonov, S.A., Yates, D.H., Chung, K.F. and Barnes, P. (1996) "Changes in the dose of inhaled steroid affect exhaled nitric oxide levels in asthmatic patients", Fur. Respir. J. 9, 196–201.
  • MacPherson, J.C., Comhair, S.A.A.A., Erzurum, S.C., Klein, D.E., Lipscomb, M.F., Kavuru, MS., Samosuk, M.K. and Hazen, S.L. (2001) "Eosinophils are a major source of nitric oxide-derived oxidants in severe asthma: characterization of pathways available to eosinophils for generating reactive nitrogen species", J. Immunol. 166, 5763–5772.
  • Wu, W., Samoszuk, M.K., Comhair, S.A.A.A., Thomsassen, M.J., Farver, C.F., Dweik, R.A., Kavuru, US., Erzurum, S.C. and Hazen, S.L. (2000) "Eosinophils generate brominating oxidants in allergen-induced asthma", J. Clin. Investig. 105, 1455–1463.
  • Saleh, D., Ernst, E, Lim, S., Barnes, P.J. and Giaid, A. (1998) "Increased formation of the potent oxidant peroxynitrite in the airways of asthmatic patients is associated with induction of nitric oxide synthase: effect of inhaled glucocorticoid", FASEB J. 12, 929–937.
  • Ansarin, K., Chatkin, J., Ferreira, I.M., Gutierrez, C., Zamel, N. and Chapman, K. (2001) "Exhaled nitric oxide in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; the relationship to pulmonary function abnormalities", Fur. Respir. J. 17, 934–938.
  • Maziak, W., Loukides, S., Culpit, S., Sullivan, P., Kharitonov, S. and Barnes, P. (1998) "Exhaled nitric oxide in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 998–1002.
  • Corradi, M., Majori, M., Cacciani, G.C., Consigli, C.F., de'Munari, E. and Pesci, A. (1999) "Increased exhaled nitric oxide in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Thorax 54, 572–575.
  • Ferreira, I.M., Hazari, M.S., Gutierrez, C., Zamel, N. and Chapman, K.R. (2001) "Exhaled nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Effects of inhaled beclomethasone", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 1012–1015.
  • Fink, M.P. (2002) "Role of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in acute respiratory distress syndrome", Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 8, 6–11.
  • Zhang, P., Wang, Y.Z., Kagan, E. and Bonner, J.C. (2000) "Peroxynitrite targets the epidermal growth factor receptor, Raf-1, and MEK independently to activate MAPK", J. Biol. Chem. 275, 22479–22486.
  • Groves, J.T. (1999) "Peroxynitrite: reactive, invasive and enigmatic", Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 3, 226–235.
  • Hogg, N. and Kalyanaraman, B. (1999) "Nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation", Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1411, 378–384.
  • Hanazawa, T., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2000) "Increased nitrotyrosine in exhaled breath condensate of patients with asthma", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 1273–1276.
  • Kaminisky, D.A., Mitchell, J., Carroll, N., James, A., Soultanakis, R. and Janssen, Y. (1999) "Nitrotyrosine formation in the airways and lung parenchyma of patients with asthma", J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 104, 747–754.
  • Balint, B., Donnelly, L.E., Hanazawa, T., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2001) "Increased nitric oxide metabolites in exhaled breath condensate after exposure to tobacco smoke", Thorax 56, 456–461.
  • Ichinose, M., Sugiura, H., Yamagata, S., Koarai, A. and Shirato, K. (2000) "Increase in reactive nitrogen species production in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease airways", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 701–706.
  • Corradi, M., Montuschi, P., Donnelly, L.E., Pesci, A., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2001) "Increased nitro-sothiols in exhaled breath condensate in inflammatory airway diseases", Am. J. Crit. Care Respir. Med. 163, 854–858.
  • Kharitonov, S.A., Donnelly, L.E., Montuschi, P., Corradi, M., Collins, J.V. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Dose-dependent onset and duration of action of inhaled budesonide on exhaled nitric oxide and symptoms in mild asthma", Thorax 57, 889–896.
  • Ho, L.P., Innes, J.A. and Greening, A.P. (1998) "Nitrite levels in breath condensate of patients with cystic fibrosis is elevated in contrast to exhaled nitric oxide", Thorax 53, 680–684.
  • Cunningham, S., McColm, J.R., Ho, L.P., Greening, A.P. and Marshal, T.G. (2000) "Measurement of inflammatory markers in the breath condensate of children with cystic fibrosis", Fur. Respir. J. 15, 955–957.
  • Ganas, K., Loukides, S., Papatheodorou, G., Panagou, P. and Kalogeropoulos, N. (2001) "Total nitrite/nitrate in expired breath condensate of patients with asthma", Respir. Med. 95, 649–654.
  • Dworski, R., Murry, J.J., Roberts, II, L.J., Oates, J.A., Morrow, J.D., Fisher, L. and Sheeller, J.R. (1999) "Allergen-induced synthesis of F2-isoprostanes in atopic asthmatics: evidence for oxidant stress", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 160, 1947–1951.
  • Montuschi, P., Collins, J.V., Ciabattoni, G., Lazzeri, N., Corradi, M., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2000) "Exhaled 8-isoprostane as an in vivo biomarker of lung oxidative stress in patients with COPD and healthy smokers", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 1175–1177.
  • Stojiljkovic, ME, Lopes, H.F., Zhang, D., Morrow, J.D., Goodfriend, T.L. and Egan, B.M. (2002) "Increasing plasma fatty acids elevates F2-isoprostanes in humans: implications for the cardiovascular risk factor cluster", J. Hypertens. 20, 1215–1221.
  • Delanty, N., Reilly, M., Pratico, D., FitzGerald, D.J., Lawson, J.A. and FitzGerald, GA. (1996) "8-epiPGF2a: specific analysis of an isoeicosanoid as an index of oxidant stress in vivo", Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 42, 15–19.
  • Longmire, A.W., Swift, L.L., Roberts, II, L.J., Awad, J.A., Burk, R.F. and Morrow, J.D. (1994) "Effects of oxygen tension on the generation of F2-isoprostanes and malondialdehyde in peroxidizing rat liver microsomes", Biochem. Pharmacol. 47, 1173–1177.
  • Baraldi, E., Carraro, S., Alinovi, R., Pesci, A., Ghiro, L., Bodine, A., Piecent, G., Zaccheello, F. and Zanconoato, S. (2003) "Cysteinyl leukotrienes and 8-isoprostane in exhaled breath condensate of children with asthma exacerbations", Thorax 58, 505–509.
  • Rahman, I., van Schadewijk, A., Crowther, A., Hiemstra, P.S., Stolk, J., MacNee, W. and de Boer, WI. (2002) "4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal, a specific lipid permddation product is elevated in lungs of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 166,490–495.
  • Corradi, M., Folesani, G., Andreoli, R., Manini, P., Bodini, A., Piacentini, G., Carraro, S., Zanconato, S. and Baraldi, E. (2003) "Aldehydes and glutathione in the exhaled breath condensate in children with asthma exacerbation", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 395–399.
  • Khyshiktueva, NA. and Khyshiktuev, B.S. (1998) "Prenatal diagnosis of fetal hypoxia based on lipid peroxidation values in exhaled air condensate", Klin. Lab. Diagn. 20,21–22.
  • Paredi, P, Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2000) "Elevation of exhaled ethane concentration in asthma", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 1450–1454.
  • Olepade, C.O., Zal(kar, M. and Swedler, W.I. (1997) "Exhaled pentane levels in acute asthma", Chest 111, 862–865.
  • Antczak, A., Nowak, D., Shariati, B., Krol, M., Piasecka, G. and Kurmanowska, Z. (1997) "Increased hydrogen peroxide and thiobarbituric acid-reactive products in expired breath condensate of asthma patients", Fur. Respir. J. 10, 1235–1241.
  • Tsukagoshi, H., Shimizu, Y., Iwamae, S., Hisada, T., Ishizuka, T., Iizuka, K., Dobashi, K. and More, M. (2000) "Evidence of oxidative stress in asthma and COPD: potential inhibitory effect of theophylline", Respir. Med. 94, 584–588.
  • Paredi, P, Kharitonov, S.A., Keak, D., Ward, S., Cramer, D. and Barnes, P.J. (2000) "Exhaled ethane, a marker of lipid permddation, is elevated in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162, 369–373.
  • Nowak, D., Kasielski, M., Antczak, A., Pietras, T. and Bialasiewicz, P. (1999) "Increased content of thiobarbiturate reactive acid substances and hydrogen peroxide in the expired breath condensate of patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: no significant effect of cigarette smoking", Resp. Med. 93, 389–396.
  • Rahman, I., Morrison, D., Donaldson, K. and MacNee, W. (1996) "Systemic oxidative stress in asthma, COPD, and smokers", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154, 1055–1060.
  • Lapenna, D., Gioia, S.D., Mezzetti, A., Ciofani, G., Consoli, A., Marzio, L. and Cuccurullo, F. (1995) "Cigarette smoke, ferritin, and lipid permddation", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151, 431–435.
  • Fahn, H., Wang, L., Kao, S., Chang, S., Huang, M. and Wei, Y. (1998) "Smoking-associated mitochondrial DNA mutation and lipid peroxidation in human lung tissue", Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 19, 901–909.
  • McRae, K., De Perrot, M., Fischer, S., Waddell, T.K., Liu, M. and Keshavjee, S. (2001) "Detection of IL-10 in the exhaled breath condensate, plasma and tissue during ischemia—reperfusion injury in experimental transplantation", J. Heart Lung Transplant. 20, 184.
  • Carpagnano, G.E., Kharitnov, S.A., Foschino-Barbaro, M.P., Resta, 0., Gramiccioni, E. and Barnes, P.J. (2003) "Increased inflammatory markers in the exhaled breath condensate of cigarette smokers", Fur. Respir. J. 21, 589–593.
  • Carpagnano, G.E., Barnes, P.J., Geddes, D.M., Hodson, M.E. and Kharitonov, S.A. (2003) "Increased leukotriene B4 and interleukin-6 in exhaled breath condensate in cystic fibrosis", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 1109–1112.
  • Shahid, S.K., Kharitonov, S.A., Wildon, N.M., Bush, A. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Increased interleukin-4 and decreased interferon-gamma in exhaled breath condensate of children with asthma", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 1290–1293.
  • Spector, S.L. (1997) "Leukotriene activity modulation in asthma", Drugs 54, 369–384.
  • Rosengren, S., Olofsson, AM., Andrian, U.H.V., Akerlund, E.L. and Arfors, K.-E. (1991) "Leukotriene B4-induced neutrophil-mediated endothelial leakage in vitro and in vivo", J. Appl. Physiol. 71, 1322–1330.
  • Becher, G., Winsel, K., Beck, E., Neubauer, G. and Stresemann, E. (1997) "Breath condensate as a method of noninvasive assessment of inflammation mediators from the lower airways", Pneumologie 51(Suppl. 2), 456–459.
  • Montuschi, P. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Exhaled leukotrienes and prostaglandins in asthma", J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 109, 615–620.
  • Csoma, Z., Kharitonov, S.A., Balint, B., Bush, A., Wilson, N.M. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Increased leukotrienes in exhaled breath condensate in childhood asthma", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 166, 1345–1349.
  • Crooks, S.W., Bayley, DL., Hill, S.L. and Stockley, R.A. (2000) "Bronchial inflammation in acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis: the role of leukotriene B4", Fur. Respir. J. 15, 274–280.
  • Biernacki, WA., Kharitonov, S.A. and Barnes, P.J. (2003) "Increased leukotriene B4 and 8-isoprostane in exhaled breath condensate of patients with exacerbations of COPD", Thorax 58, 294–298.
  • Reinhold, P., Langenberg, A., Becher, G. and Rothe, M. (1999) "Breath condensate—a medium obtained by a noninvasive method for the detection of inflammation mediators of the lung", Ber. Munch Tieraztl Wochenschr. 112, 254–259.
  • Montuschi, P., Kharitonov, S.A., Ciabattoni, G. and Barnes, P.J. (2003) "Exhaled leukotrienes and prostaglandins in COPD", Thorax 58, 585–588.
  • Hunt, J.F., Fang, K., Malik, R., Snyder, A., Malhotra, N., Platts-Mills, T.A. and Gaston, B. (2000) "Endogenous airway acidification. Implications for asthma pathophysiology", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 694–699.
  • Kostikas, K., Papatheodorou, G., Ganas, K., Psathakis, K., Panagou, P. and Loukides, S. (2002) "pH in expired breath condensate of patients with inflammatory airway diseases", Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 165, 1364–1370.
  • Scheideler, L., Manke, HG., Schwulera, U., Inacker, 0. and Hammerle, H. (1993) "Detection of nonvolatile macromole-cules in breath. A possible diagnostic tool?", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148, 778–784.
  • Griese, M., Noss, J. and von Bredow, C. (2002) "Protein pattern of exhaled breath condensate and saliva", Proteomics 2, 690–696.
  • Kelly, F.J., Buhl, R. and Sandstrom, T. (1999) "Measurement of antioxidants, oxidants and oxidant products in bronch-oalveolar lavage fluid", Fur. Respir. Rev. 9, 93–98.
  • Kelly, F.J., Mudway, I., Blomberg, A., Frew, A.J. and Sandstrom, T. (1999) "Altered lung antioxidant status in patients with mild asthma", Lancet 354, 482–483.
  • Andreoli, R., Manini, P., Corradi, M., Mutti, A. and Niessen, W.M.A. (2003) "Determination of patterns of biologically relevant aldehydes in exhaled breath condensate of healthy subjects by liquid chromatography/atmospheric chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry", Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 17, 637–645.
  • Carpagnano, G.E., Resta, 0., Foschino-Barbaro, M.P., Gramiccioni, E. and Carpagnano, F. (2002) "Interleukin-6 is increased in breath condensate of patients with non-small cell lung cancer", Int. J. Biol. Markers 17, 141–145.
  • Carpagnano, G.E., Kharitonov, S.A., Resta, 0., Foschino-Barbaro, M.P., Gramiccioni, E. and Barnes, P.J. (2002) "Increased 8-isoprostane and interleukin-6 in breath condensate of obstructive sleep apnea patients", Chest 122, 1162–1167.
  • Tate, S., MacGregor, G., Davis, M., Irmes, J.A. and Greening, A.P. (2002) "Airways in cystic fibrosis are acidified: detection by exhaled breath condensate", Thorax 57, 926–929.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.