The “yellow rain” controversy: Lessons for arms control compliance

References

• Haig , Alexander M. Jr. September 13 1981 . “A Certain Idea of Man: The Democratic Revolution and Its Future” . In Current Policy , September 13 , Washington, D.C. : U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs . No. 311
   Google Scholar
• Pringle , Peter . 1985 . “Political Science: How the Rush to Scientific Judgement on Yellow Rain Embarrassed Both U.S. Science and the U.S. Government” . Atlantic Monthly , 256 October : 67
   Google Scholar
• Bartley , Robert L. and Kucewicz , William P. 1983 . “'Yellow Rain’ and the Future of Arms Agreements” . Foreign Affairs , 61 : 805 – 826 .
   Google Scholar
• Wade , Nicholas . 1981 . “Toxin Warfare Charges May Be Premature” . Science , 214 October 2 : 34
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boffey , Philip M. 1983 . “The Yellow Rain Debate: Scientists Take Sides as Battle Intensifies” . New York Times , June 21 : C1
   Google Scholar
• Ember , Lois R. 1984 . “Yellow Rain” . Chemical and Engineering News , 62 January 9 : 8 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamow , Stanley . 1979 . “U.S. Giving Little Attention to Meos, Once Allies, Now Genocide Target” . Washington Post , August 20
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . February 2 1982 . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, Volume II— Supporting Analy‐sis February 2 ,
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs . Hearing, Use of Chemical Agents in Southeast Asia Since the Vietnam War 96th Congress, 1st session . December 12 , Washington, D.C.. pp. 4 U.S. Government Printing Office . 1980
   Google Scholar
• Guyot , Erik . “The Case Is Not Proved” . The Nation , 239 465
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs . Hearing, Use of Chemical Agents in Southeast Asia 4
   Google Scholar
• Wannemacher , Robert W. and Wiener , Stanley L. 1997 . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . In Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare , Edited by: Sidell , Frederick R. , Takafuji , Ernest T. and Franz , David R. 659 Washington, D.C. : U.S. Army .
   Google Scholar
• Crocker , Gary B. 1986 . “Yellow Rain Dampens Treaty Hopes” . NBC Defense & Technology International , 1 September : 7
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs . Hearing, Use of Chemical Agents in Southeast Asia 73
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, Volume II‐ Supporting Analysis El
   Google Scholar
• Defense Intelligence Agency . January 31 1983 . Toxic Chemical Warfare Agents and Weapon Systems—USSR , Report No. DST‐162OS‐041–83 January 31 ,
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs . Hearing, Use of Chemical Agents in Southeast Asia 4
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia, Volume II El
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate, Memorandum to Holders . March 2 1983 . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan March 2 , B‐l
   Google Scholar
• 1978 . “Laos: Sowing Death on Phou Bia” . Asiaweek , December 1
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs . Hearing, Use of Chemical Agents in Southeast Asia 21
   Google Scholar
• Hovey , Graham . 1979 . “Refugees from Laos Tell of Gas Attack” . New York rimes , November 4
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan Volume II , E‐3 E‐4
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Arms Control, Oceans, International Operations and Environment . Hearing, "Yellow Rain” and Other Forms of Chemical and Biological Warfare in Asia 97th Congress, 1st session . November 10 1981 . pp. 11 Washington, D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• UPI . 1980 . “Cambodian Guerillas Maintain that Vietnam is Using Poison Gas” . Washington Star , February 18 : 1
   Google Scholar
• Crocker , Gary B. 1988 . “The ‘Yellow Rain’ Issue: Evidence of Chemical and Toxin Weapons Use in Laos, Cambodia, and Afghanistan” . Comments on Toxicology , 2 : 7 (Special Issue on “Yellow Rain")
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of State . March 22 1982 . Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan: Report to the Congress from Secretary of State Alexander M. Haig, Jr , Special Report No. 98 March 22 , 11
   Google Scholar
• Beecher , William . 1982 . “Toxic Weapon Used on Chinese?” . Boston Globe , July 30 : 16
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan Volume II , E‐2
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Julian , Guillemin , Jeanne and Meselson , Matthew . 1987 . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia: The Story Collapses” . Foreign Policy , Fall
   Google Scholar
• Wright , Susan , ed. 1990 . Preventing a Biological Arms Race , 221 Cambridge : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer , H. Bruno . 1988 . “The Differential Diagnosis: Are There Natural Explanations for What is Called ‘Yellow Rain’ and its Alleged Effects?” . Comments on Toxicology , 2 : 53
   Google Scholar
• Crocker . “The ‘Yellow Rain’ Issue” . 11
   Google Scholar
• Bradsher , Henry S. 1979 . “Viets Suspected of Using Gas on Lao Tribes” . Washington Star , August 9
   Google Scholar
• Spiers , Edward M. 1986 . Chemical Warfare , 107 Urbana, IL : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Seagrave , Sterling . 1981 . Yellow Rain: A Journey Through the Terror of Chemical Warfare , 34 New York : M. Evans & Co. .
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton‐Merritt , Jane . 1980 . “Gas Warfare in Laos: Communism's Drive to Annihilate a People” . Reader's Digest , October
   Google Scholar
• Stark , David C. , Hertzog , James F. and Filinska , Maria B. May 1994 . “Appendix G: Assessment of Investigations of Alleged CW Use in Laos and Kampuchea” . In Chemical Weapons Convention Verification Technology Research and Development: Assessments of Investigations of Alleged Use of CW (1970–1993) , May , G‐2 Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD : Edgewood Research, Development and Engineering Center . ERDEC‐CR‐151
   Google Scholar
• Utgoff , Victor A. 1991 . The Challenge of Chemical Weapons: An American Perspective , 77 New York : St. Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• Spiers . Chemical Warfare , 105
   Google Scholar
• Bartley and Kucewicz . “'Yellow Rain’ and the Future of Arms Agreements” . 809 – 810 .
   Google Scholar
• Wannemacher and Wiener . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . 660
   Google Scholar
• Peraica , M. , Radic , B. , Lucic , A. and Pavlovic , M. 1999 . “Toxic Effects of Mycotoxins in Humans” . Bulletin of the World Health Organization , 77 : 759
   Google Scholar
• Yamazaki , M. 1978 . “Chemistry of Mycotoxins” . In Toxicology, Biochemistry, and Pathology of Mycotoxins , Edited by: Uraguchi , K. and Yamazaki , M. 65 – 106 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Peraica , Radic , Lucic and Pavlovic . “Toxic Effects of Mycotoxins in Humans” . 754 – 766 .
   Google Scholar
• Wannemacher and Wiener . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . 660
   Google Scholar
• Watson , Sharon and U.S. Department of State . November 29 1982 . “On‐the‐Record Briefing on Chemical Warfare in Afghanistan, Laos, and Kampuchea” . November 29 , 26 Washington, D.C. [transcript]
   Google Scholar
• Augerson , William S. 2000 . A Review of the Scientific Literature as it Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses, Vol. 5: Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents , Report No. MR‐1018/5‐OSD 70 Santa Monica, Calif. : RAND Corp. .
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer , H.B. 1985 . “Dynamics of Experimental Trichothecene Mycotoxico‐sis” . In Trichothecenes and Other Mycotoxins , Edited by: Lacey , John . 433 New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Perera , Judith . 1984 . “Yellow Rain Evidence Does Not Stand Up” . New Scientist , March 22 : 4
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer . “The Differential Diagnosis” . 51 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Wannemacher and Wiener . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . 666
   Google Scholar
• Chinn , Kenneth S.K. June 1983 . Trichothecenes: Are They Potential Threat Agents? , Document No. DSG‐S‐83–502 June , 2 Dugway, UT : U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground .
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer , H.B. 1983 . “The Possible Use of Chemical Warfare Agents in Southeast Asia” . Conflict Quarterly , 3 : 38
   Google Scholar
• Ciegler , Alex . 1986 . “Mycotoxins: A New Class of Chemical Weapons” . NBC Defense and Technology International , 1 April : 52 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Rousseaux , Colin G. 1988 . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins: Real or Imaginary Toxins?” . Comments on Toxicology , 2 : 47
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer , H. B. “Dynamics of Experimental Trichothecene Mycotoxicosis” . 434
   Google Scholar
• Bunner , David L. , Wannemacher , Robert W. Neufield , Harold A. “Pathophysiology of Acute T‐2 Intoxication in the Cynomolgus Monkey and Rat Models” . In Trichothecenes and Other Mycotoxins Edited by: Lacey . 418
   Google Scholar
• Wannemacher and Wiener . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . 659
   Google Scholar
• Spiers . Chemical Warfare 106
   Google Scholar
• Rosen , Joseph D. 1983 . “Yellow Rain” [letter] . Science , 221 August 19 : 698
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosen , Robert T. and Rosen , Joseph D. 1982 . “Presence of Four Fusarium Mycotoxins and Synthetic Material in ‘Yellow Rain’” . Biomedical Mass Spectrometry , 9 : 443 – 450 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seeley , Thomas D. , Nowicke , Joan W. , Meselson , Matthew , Guillemin , Jeanne and Akratanakul , Prongthep . 1985 . “Yellow Rain” . Scientific American , 253 September : 131
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of State . November 29 1982 . “On‐the‐Record Briefing” . November 29 , 15
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . February 2 1982 . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, Volume 1‐Key Judgments , Document No. 11/50/37–82 February 2 ,
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of State . March 22 1982 . Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan: Report to the Congress from Secretary of State Alexander M. Haig, Jr , Special Report No. 98 March 22 ,
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of State . November 1982 . Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan: An Update, Report from Secretary of State George Schultz , Special Report No. 104 November ,
   Google Scholar
• December 1 1982 . Final Report of the U.N. Group of Experts December 1 , U.N. Document No. A/37/ 259
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , Eliot . 1982 . “The Soviet Elephant Grass Theory” . Science , 217 July 2 : 32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Utgoff . The Challenge of Chemical Weapons 77
   Google Scholar
• Whiteside , Thomas . 1991 . “Annals of the Cold War: The Yellow Rain Com‐plex‐I” . New Yorker , February 11 : 38 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Gigot , Paul . 1982 . “Is the United States Crying Wolf on Yellow Rain, or Is Everyone Else Ignoring Evidence?” . Wall Street Journal , December 14
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of State . November 29 1982 . “On‐the‐Record Briefing” . November 29 , 19 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Information Agency . November 30 1982 . “Briefing: Robert Dean and Gary Crocker on ‘Yellow Rain’” . November 30 , 12 – 13 . Washington, D.C.
   Google Scholar
• Nowicke , Joan W. and Meselson , Matthew . 1984 . “Yellow Rain‐A Palynologi‐cal Analysis” . Nature , 309 May 17 : 205 – 206 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall , Eliot . 1983 . “Bugs in the Yellow Rain Theory” . Science , 220 June 24 : 1356 – 1358 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seeley , Nowicke , Meselson , Guillemin and Akratanakul . “Yellow Rain” . 132
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 224
   Google Scholar
• Zhongying , Zhang , Yu‐Ming , Chen , Shu , Chow and Min , Li . 1977 . “A Study of the Origin and Pollen Analysis of ‘Yellow Rains’ in Northern Jiangsu” . Kexue Tongbao [in Chinese] , 22 : 409 – 412 .
   Google Scholar
• Zhongying , Zhang . 1986 . “Yellow Rain: A Major International Debate of the 1980's” . Ziran Zazhi [in Chinese] , 9 February : 122 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 225
   Google Scholar
• Seeley , Nowicke , Meselson , Guillemin and Akratanakul . “Yellow Rain” . 135 – 137 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 234
   Google Scholar
• Evans , Grant . 1983 . The Yellow Rainmakers: Are Chemical Weapons Being Used in S.E. Asia? , London : Verso Editions .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , Elisa D. 1987 . “Sverdlovsk and Yellow Rain: Two Cases of Soviet Non‐compliance” . International Security , 11 Spring : 78
   Google Scholar
• Spiers . Chemical Warfare 114
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 228
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , Eliot . 1986 . “Yellow Rain Evidence Slowly Whittled Away” . Science , 233 July 4 : 18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1986 . “Yellow Rain: British Analyses Find No Toxin” . Nature , 321 May 29 : 459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 229
   Google Scholar
• Seeley , Thomas D. , Nowicke , Joan W. , Meselson , Matthew and Guillemin , Jeanne . 1986 . “Letter to the Editor” . Scientific American , 254 January : 10
   Google Scholar
• May , M.E. , Hannan , P.J. and Carhart , H.W. March 27 1985 . Yellow Rain (Trichothecene Mycotoxins): A Synopsis and Recommendations , NRL Memorandum Report 5522 March 27 , 16 Washington, D.C. : Naval Research Laboratory . [Partially declassified under FOIA on April 1, 1999]
   Google Scholar
• Humphreys , G.R. and Dow , J. 1982 . “An Epidemiological Investigation of Alleged CW/BW Incidents in SE Asia” . Ottawa, , Canada : Directorate of Pre‐ventative Medicine, Surgeon General Branch, National Defence Headquarters, August 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer . “The Possible Use of Chemical Warfare Agents” . 34
   Google Scholar
• Kucewicz , William . 1987 . “Bee‐Feces Theory Still Has No Sting” . Wall Street Journal , September 17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wannemacher and Wiener . “Trichothecene Mycotoxins” . 666
   Google Scholar
• Barss , Peter . 1992 . “Epidemic Field Investigation as Applied to Allegations of Chemical, Biological, or Toxin Warfare” . Politics and the Life Sciences , 11 February : 15
   Google Scholar
• Piller , Charles and Yamamoto , Keith R. 1988 . Gene Wars: Military Control Over the New Genetic Technologies , 75 New York : Beech Tree Books/William Morrow .
   Google Scholar
• Hu , Howard , Cook‐Deegan , Robert and Shukri , Asfandiar . 1989 . “The Use of Chemical Weapons: Conducting an Investigation Using Survey Epidemiology” . Journal of the American Medical Association , 262 August 4 : 641
   Google Scholar
• Stark , Hertzog and Filinska . “Appendix G: Assessment of Investigations of Alleged CW Use” . G‐16
   Google Scholar
• 1986 . “cbw Developments in 1985” . In World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbook 1986 , 164 New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , Eliot . 1981 . “Yellow Rain and the Cloud of Chemical War” . Science , 214 : 1008
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• U.S. Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence . 1992 . 102nd Congress, 1st session, Hearing, Nomination of Robert M. Gates to be Director of Central Intelligence . September 24 1992 , Washington, D.C.. Volume II , pp. 144 U.S. Government Printing Office . October 1, 2, 1991 [S.Hrg. 102–799, Vol. 2]
   Google Scholar
• 1991 . “Excerpts from Gates's Testimony on His Record at the C.I.A” . New York Times , October 4 : A12
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Information Agency . “Briefing: Robert Dean and Gary Crocker on ‘Yellow Rain’” . 15
   Google Scholar
• Rimmington , Anthony . 2000 . “Invisible Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Soviet Union's BW Programme and its Implications for Contemporary Arms Control” . Journal of Slavic Military Studies , 13 September : 1 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Alibek , Ken and Handelman , Stephen . 1999 . Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from the Inside by the Man Who Ran It , New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Special National Intelligence Estimate . Use of Toxins and Other Lethal Chemicals in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan Volume I , 20
   Google Scholar
• Blazar , Ernest . 1998 . “Inside the Ring: Long Lost Secrets” . Washington Times , June 29 : 9
   Google Scholar
• Hu , Howard , Fine , Jonathan Epstein , Paul . 1989 . “Tear Gas—Harassing Agent or Toxic Chemical Weapon?” . Journal of the American Medical Association , 262 August 4 : 660 – 663 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) . October 1993 . “Verification Annex, Part XI: Investigation in Cases of Alleged Use of Chemical Weapons” . In Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction , October , 164 – 165 . Washington, D.C. : ACDA .
   Google Scholar
• Barletta , Michael . 1998 . “Chemical Weapons in the Sudan: Allegations and Evidence” . The Nonproliferation Review , 6 Fall : 124
   Google Scholar
• Utgoff . The Challenge of Chemical Weapons 80
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , Guillemin and Meselson . “Yellow Rain in Southeast Asia” . 235
   Google Scholar