A narrative review of gait training after stroke and a proposal for developing a novel gait training device that provides minimal assistance

References

• Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Brown T, Carnethon M, Dai S, De Simone G. American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Executive summary: Heart disease and stroke statistics–2010 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Med Eng Phys. 2010;121(7):948–954.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly-Hayes M, Beiser A, Kase C, Scaramucci A, D’Agostino R, Wolf P. The influence of gender and age on disability following ischemic stroke: The Framingham study* 1. J Stroke nd Cerebrov Dis. 2003;12(3):119–126.10.1016/S1052-3057(03)00042-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Westlake KP, Patten C. Pilot study of Lokomat versus manual-assisted treadmill training for locomotor recovery post-stroke. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2009;6:18.10.1186/1743-0003-6-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauritz KH. Gait training in hemiplegia. Eur J Neurol. 2002;9(s1):23–29; dicussion 53–61.10.1046/j.1468-1331.2002.0090s1023.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mauritz KH. Gait training in hemiparetic stroke patients. Eura Medicophys. 2004;40(3):165–178.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ada L, Dean CM, Morris ME. Supported treadmill training to establish walking in non-ambulatory patients early after stroke. BMC Neurol. 2007;7:31.10.1186/1471-2377-7-29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ada L, Dean CM, Morris ME, Simpson JM, Katrak P. Randomized trial of treadmill walking with body weight support to establish walking in subacute stroke: The mobilise trial. Stroke. 2010;41(6):1237–1242.10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.569483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plummer P, Behrman AL, Duncan PW, et al. Effects of stroke severity and training duration on locomotor recovery after stroke: A pilot study. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2007;21(2):137–151.10.1177/1545968306295559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher BE, Sullivan kJ. Activity-dependent factors affecting poststroke functional outcomes. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2001;8(3):31–44.10.1310/B3JD-NML4-V1FB-5YHG
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Rose DK, Tan SM, Lewthwaite R, Chui HC, Azen SP. A randomized controlled comparison of upper-extremity rehabilitation strategies in acute stroke: A pilot study of immediate and long-term outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(4):620–628.10.1016/j.apmr.2003.06.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf SL, Thompson PA, Morris DM, et al. The EXCITE trial: Attributes of the wolf motor function test in patients with subacute stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2005;19(3):194–205.10.1177/1545968305276663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard IJ, Parsons MW, Neilson C, Carey LM. Task-specific training: Evidence for and translation to clinical practice. Occup Ther Int. 2009;16(3–4):175–189.10.1002/oti.v16:3/4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein C, Wolf S. Task-oriented training to promote upper extremity recovery. In: Stein J, Harvey RL, Macko RF, Winstein CJ, Zorowitz RD, editors. Stroke Recovery & Rehabilitation. New York, NY: Demos Medical; 2008. p. 267–290.
   Google Scholar
• Jang SH, Kim YH, Cho SH, Lee JH, Park JW, Kwon YH. Cortical reorganization induced by task-oriented training in chronic hemiplegic stroke patients. NeuroReport. 2003;14(1):137–141.10.1097/00001756-200301200-00025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards LG, Stewart KC, Woodbury ML, Senesac C, Cauraugh JH. Movement-dependent stroke recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of TMS and fMRI evidence. Neuropsychologia. 2008;46(1):3–11.10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.08.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayona NA, Bitensky J, Salter K, Teasell R. The role of task-specific training in rehabilitation therapies. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2005;12(3):58–65.10.1310/BQM5-6YGB-MVJ5-WVCR
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pollock A, Farmer SE, Brady MC, et al. Interventions for improving upper limb function after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;11:CD010820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rensink M, Schuurmans M, Lindeman E, Hafsteinsdóttir T. Task-oriented training in rehabilitation after stroke: Systematic review. J Adv Nurs. 2009;65(4):737–754.10.1111/jan.2009.65.issue-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriquez AA, Black PO, Kile KA, et al. Gait training efficacy using a home-based practice model in chronic hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77(8):801–805.10.1016/S0003-9993(96)90260-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayr A, Kofler M, Quirbach E, Matzak H, Fröhlich K, Saltuari L. Prospective, blinded, randomized crossover study of gait rehabilitation in stroke patients using the lokomat gait orthosis. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2007;21(4):307–314.10.1177/1545968307300697
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCain kJ, Pollo FE, Baum BS, Coleman SC, Baker S, Smith PS. Locomotor treadmill training with partial body-weight support before overground gait in adults with acute stroke: A pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89(4):684–691.10.1016/j.apmr.2007.09.050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowak DA, Grefkes C, Ameli M, Fink GR. Interhemispheric competition after stroke: Brain stimulation to enhance recovery of function of the affected hand. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2009;23(7):641–656.10.1177/1545968309336661
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornby TG, Campbell DD, Kahn JH, Demott T, Moore JL, Roth HR. Enhanced gait-related improvements after therapist- versus robotic-assisted locomotor training in subjects with chronic stroke: A randomized controlled study. Stroke. 2008;39(6):1786–1792.10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.504779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rockefeller K. Using technology to promote safe patient handling and rehabilitation. Rehabil Nurs. 2008;33(1):3–9.10.1002/rnj.2008.33.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DePaul VG, Wishart LR, Richardson J, Lee TD, Thabane L. Varied overground walking-task practice versus body-weight-supported treadmill training in ambulatory adults within one year of stroke: A randomized controlled trial protocol. BMC Neurol. 2011;11:27.10.1186/1471-2377-11-129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Peppen RP, Kwakkel G, Wood-Dauphinee S, Hendriks HJ, Van der Wees PJ, Dekker J. The impact of physical therapy on functional outcomes after stroke: What’s the evidence? Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(8):833–862.10.1191/0269215504cr843oa
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barbeau H, Wainberg M, Finch L. Description and application of a system for locomotor rehabilitation. Med Biol Eng Comput. 1987;25(3):341–344.10.1007/BF02447435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Cunha IT Jr., Lim PA, Qureshy H, Henson H, Monga T, Protas EJ. Gait outcomes after acute stroke rehabilitation with supported treadmill ambulation training: A randomized controlled pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(9):1258–1265.10.1053/apmr.2002.34267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teixeira da Cunha Filho I, Lim PA, Qureshy H, Henson H, Monga T, Protas EJ. A comparison of regular rehabilitation and regular rehabilitation with supported treadmill ambulation training for acute stroke patients. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2001;38(2):245–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson MS, Qureshy H, Protas EJ, Holmes SA, Krouskop TA, Sherwood AM. Equipment specifications for supported treadmill ambulation training. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37(4):415–422.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barbeau H, Visintin M. Optimal outcomes obtained with body-weight support combined with treadmill training in stroke subjects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(10):1458–1465.10.1016/S0003-9993(03)00361-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson L, Carlsson J, Danielsson A, et al. Walking training of patients with hemiparesis at an early stage after stroke: A comparison of walking training on a treadmill with body weight support and walking training on the ground. Clin Rehabil. 2001;15(5):515–527.10.1191/026921501680425234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan kJ, Knowlton BJ, Dobkin BH. Step training with body weight support: Effect of treadmill speed and practice paradigms on poststroke locomotor recovery. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(5):683–691.10.1053/apmr.2002.32488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suputtitada A, Yooktanan P, Rarerng-Ying T. Effect of partial body weight support treadmill training in chronic stroke patients. J Med Assoc Thai. 2004;87(Suppl 2):S107–111.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Visintin M, Barbeau H, Korner-Bitensky N, Mayo NE. A new approach to retrain gait in stroke patients through body weight support and treadmill stimulation. Stroke. 1998;29(6):1122–1128.10.1161/01.STR.29.6.1122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner C, Bardeleben A, Mauritz KH, Kirker S, Hesse S. Treadmill training with partial body weight support and physiotherapy in stroke patients: A preliminary comparison. Eur J Neurol. 2002;9(6):639–644.10.1046/j.1468-1331.2002.00492.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eich HJ, Mach H, Werner C, Hesse S. Aerobic treadmill plus Bobath walking training improves walking in subacute stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2004;18(6):640–651.10.1191/0269215504cr779oa
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peurala SH, Tarkka IM, Pitkänen K, Sivenius J. The effectiveness of body weight-supported gait training and floor walking in patients with chronic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(8):1557–1564.10.1016/j.apmr.2005.02.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yen CL, Wang RY, Liao KK, Huang CC, Yang YR. Gait training—Induced change in corticomotor excitability in patients with chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2008;22(1):22–30.10.1177/1545968307301875
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wernig A, Müller S, Nanassy A, Cagol E. Laufband therapy based on‘rules of spinal locomotion’is effective in spinal cord injured persons. Eur J Neurosci. 1995;7(4):823–829.10.1111/ejn.1995.7.issue-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shumway-Cook M, Woollacott A. Motor Control: Theory and Practical Applications. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW. Motor learning: Its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol. 2006;19(1):84.10.1097/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis JZ. Task selection and enriched environments: A functional upper extremity training program for stroke survivors. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2006;13(3):1–11.10.1310/D91V-2NEY-6FL5-26Y2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard IJ, Parsons MW, Neilson C, Carey LM. Task-specific training: Evidence for and translation to clinical practice. Occup Ther Int. 2009;16(3–4):175–189.10.1002/oti.v16:3/4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blennerhassett J, Dite W. Additional task-related practice improves mobility and upper limb function early after stroke: A randomised controlled trial. Aust J Physiother. 2004;50(4):219–224.10.1016/S0004-9514(14)60111-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byl NN, Pitsch EA, Abrams GM. Functional outcomes can vary by dose: Learning-based sensorimotor training for patients stable poststroke. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2008;22(5):494.10.1177/1545968308317431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornby TG, Straube DS, Kinnaird CR, et al. Importance of specificity, amount, and intensity of locomotor training to improve ambulatory function in patients poststroke. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2011;18(4):293–307.10.1310/tsr1804-293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shea CH, Kohl RM. Composition of practice: Influence on the retention of motor skills. Res Q Exercise Sport. 1991;62(2):187–195.10.1080/02701367.1991.10608709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW. Motor learning: Its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol. 2006;19(1):84–90.10.1097/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogey R, Hornby GT. Gait training strategies utilized in poststroke rehabilitation: Are we really making a difference? Top Stroke Rehabil. 2007;14(6):1–8.10.1310/tsr1406-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colombo G, Joerg M, Schreier R, Dietz V. Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37(6):693–700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riener R, Lunenburger L, Jezernik S, Anderschitz M, Colombo G, Dietz V. Patient-cooperative strategies for robot-aided treadmill training: First experimental results. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2005;13(3):380–394.10.1109/TNSRE.2005.848628
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veneman J, Kruidhof R, Hekman E, Ekkelenkamp R, Van Asseldonk E, van der Kooij H. Design and evaluation of the LOPES exoskeleton robot for interactive gait rehabilitation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2007;15(3):379–386.10.1109/TNSRE.2007.903919
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freivogel S, Mehrholz J, Husak-Sotomayor T, Schmalohr D. Gait training with the newly developed ‘LokoHelp’-system is feasible for non-ambulatory patients after stroke, spinal cord and brain injury. A feasibility study. Brain Injury: [BI]. 2008;22(7–8):625–632.10.1080/02699050801941771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hesse S, Waldner A, Tomelleri C. Innovative gait robot for the repetitive practice of floor walking and stair climbing up and down in stroke patients. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2010;7(1):30.10.1186/1743-0003-7-30
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stauffer Y, Allemand Y, Bouri M, et al. The WalkTrainer–a new generation of walking reeducation device combining orthoses and muscle stimulation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2009;17(1):38–45.10.1109/TNSRE.2008.2008288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz I, Sajin A, Fisher I, et al. The effectiveness of locomotor therapy using robotic-assisted gait training in subacute stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial. PM&R. 2009;1(6):516–523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohl M, Werner C, Holzgraefe M, et al. Repetitive locomotor training and physiotherapy improve walking and basic activities of daily living after stroke: A single-blind, randomized multicentre trial (DEutsche GAngtrainerStudie, DEGAS). Clin Rehabil. 2007;21(1):17–27.10.1177/0269215506071281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Husemann B, Muller F, Krewer C, Heller S, Koenig E. Effects of locomotion training with assistance of a robot-driven gait orthosis in hemiparetic patients after stroke: A randomized controlled pilot study. Stroke. 2007;38(2):349–354.10.1161/01.STR.0000254607.48765.cb
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidler J, Nichols D, Pelliccio M, et al. Multicenter randomized clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of the lokomat in subacute stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2009;23(1):5–13.10.1177/1545968308326632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picelli A, Melotti C, Origano F, et al. Robot-assisted gait training in patients with parkinson disease: A randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2012;26(4):353–361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beer S, Aschbacher B, Manoglou D, Gamper E, Kool J, Kesselring J. Robot-assisted gait training in multiple sclerosis: A pilot randomized trial. Mult Scler J. 2008;14(2):231–236.10.1177/1352458507082358
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaney C, Gattlen B, Lugon-Moulin V, et al. Robotic-assisted step training (Lokomat) not superior to equal intensity of over-ground rehabilitation in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2012;26(3):212–221.10.1177/1545968311425923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo AC, Triche EW. Improving gait in multiple sclerosis using robot-assisted, body weight supported treadmill training. Neurorehabil Neural Rep. 2008;22(6):661–671.10.1177/1545968308318473
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz I, Sajin A, Moreh E, et al. Robot-assisted gait training in multiple sclerosis patients: A randomized trial. Mult Scler J. 2011;18(6):881–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewek MD, Cruz TH, Moore JL, Roth HR, Dhaher YY, Hornby TG. Allowing intralimb kinematic variability during locomotor training poststroke improves kinematic consistency: A subgroup analysis from a randomized clinical trial. Phys Ther. 2009;89(8):829–839.10.2522/ptj.20080180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobkin BH, Duncan PW. Should body weight-supported treadmill training and robotic-assistive steppers for locomotor training trot back to the starting gate? Neurorehabilitation and neural repair. 2012;26(4):308–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wernig A. “Ineffectiveness” of automated locomotor training. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(12):2385–2386. author reply 2386–2387.10.1016/j.apmr.2005.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavrov I, Courtine G, Dy CJ, et al. Facilitation of stepping with epidural stimulation in spinal rats: Role of sensory input. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2008;28(31):7774–7780.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1069-08.2008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timoszyk WK, Nessler JA, Acosta C, et al. Hindlimb loading determines stepping quantity and quality following spinal cord transection. Brain Res. 2005;1050(1–2):180–189.10.1016/j.brainres.2005.05.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai LL, Fong AJ, Otoshi CK, et al. Implications of assist-as-needed robotic step training after a complete spinal cord injury on intrinsic strategies of motor learning. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2006;26(41):10564–10568.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2266-06.2006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah PK, Gerasimenko Y, Shyu A, et al. Variability in step training enhances locomotor recovery after a spinal cord injury. Eur J Neurosci. 2012;36(1):2054–2062.10.1111/ejn.2012.36.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler MD, Zhong H, Roy RR, Edgerton VR. Why Variability Facilitates Spinal Learning. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2010;30(32):10720–10726.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1938-10.2010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Recanzone GH, Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM, Grajski KA, Dinse HR. Topographic reorganization of the hand representation in cortical area 3b owl monkeys trained in a frequency-discrimination task. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67(5):1031–1056.10.1152/jn.1992.67.5.1031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch D, Ferraro M, Krol J, Trudell CM, Christos P, Volpe BT. Continuous passive motion improves shoulder joint integrity following stroke. Clin Rehabil. 2005;19(6):594–599.10.1191/0269215505cr901oa
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hummelsheim H, Maier-Loth ML, Eickhof C. The functional value of electrical muscle stimulation for the rehabilitation of the hand in stroke patients. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1997;29(1):3–10.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LaMotte RH, Mountcastle VB. Disorders in somesthesis following lesions of parietal lobe. J Neurophysiol. 1979;42(2):400–419.10.1152/jn.1979.42.2.400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sainburg RL, Poizner H, Ghez C. Loss of proprioception produces deficits in interjoint coordination. J Neurophysiol. 1993;70(5):2136–2147.10.1152/jn.1993.70.5.2136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sainburg RL, Ghilardi MF, Poizner H, Ghez C. Control of limb dynamics in normal subjects and patients without proprioception. J Neurophysiol. 1995;73(2):820–835.10.1152/jn.1995.73.2.820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lackner JR, DiZio P, Jeka J, Horak F, Krebs D, Rabin E. Precision contact of the fingertip reduces postural sway of individuals with bilateral vestibular loss. Exp Brain Res. 1999;126(4):459–466.10.1007/s002210050753
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM. Reorganization of neocortical representations after brain injury: A neurophysiological model of the bases of recovery from stroke. Prog Brain Res. 1987;71:249–266.10.1016/S0079-6123(08)61829-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xerri C, Merzenich MM, Peterson BE, Jenkins W. Plasticity of primary somatosensory cortex paralleling sensorimotor skill recovery from stroke in adult monkeys. J Neurophysiol. 1998;79(4):2119–2148.10.1152/jn.1998.79.4.2119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thielman G. Rehabilitation of reaching poststroke: A randomized pilot investigation of tactile versus auditory feedback for trunk control. J Neurol Phys Ther: JNPT. 2010;34(3):138–144.10.1097/NPT.0b013e3181efa1e8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cirstea MC, Ptito A, Levin MF. Arm reaching improvements with short-term practice depend on the severity of the motor deficit in stroke. Exp Brain Res. 2003;152(4):476–488.10.1007/s00221-003-1568-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaelsen SM, Dannenbaum R, Levin MF. Task-specific training with trunk restraint on arm recovery in stroke: Randomized control trial. Stroke. 2006;37(1):186–192.10.1161/01.STR.0000196940.20446.c9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plautz EJ, Milliken GW, Nudo RJ. Effects of repetitive motor training on movement representations in adult squirrel monkeys: Role of use versus learning. Neurobiol Learn Memory. 2000;74(1):27–55.10.1006/nlme.1999.3934
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyc F, Boyadjian A. Cortical plasticity and motor activity studied with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Rev Neurosci. 2006;17(5):469–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang SM, Rincon D. Biofeedback controlled ankle foot orthosis for stroke rehabilitation to improve gait symmetry. Florida Conf Recent Adv Robotics. 2006;2006:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Trombly CA. Occupational Therapy for Dysfunction. 4th ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins; 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Emken JL, Benitez R, Reinkensmeyer DJ. Human-robot cooperative movement training: Learning a novel sensory motor transformation during walking with robotic assistance-as-needed. J NeuroEng Rehabil. 2007;4:8.10.1186/1743-0003-4-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen W, Cui X, Zhang J, Wang J. A cable-driven wrist robotic rehabilitator using a novel torque-field controller for human motion training. Rev Sci Instrum. 2015;86(6):065109.10.1063/1.4923089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller U, Rauter G, Riener R. Assist-as-needed path control for the PASCAL rehabilitation robot. IEEE Int Conf Rehabi Robotics: [proceedings]. 2013;2013:6650475.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reinkensmeyer DJ, Wolbrecht ET, Chan V, Chou C, Cramer SC, Bobrow JE. Comparison of three-dimensional, assist-as-needed robotic Arm/hand movement training provided with Pneu-WREX to conventional tabletop therapy after chronic stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil/Assoc Acad Physiatrists. 2012;91(11 Suppl 3):S232–S241.10.1097/PHM.0b013e31826bce79
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carmichael MG, Liu D. A task description model for robotic rehabilitation. Conference Proceedings: Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Annual Conference. 2012;2012:3086–3089.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carmichael MG, Liu D. Experimental evaluation of a model-based assistance-as-needed paradigm using an assistive robot. Conference proceedings : Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society Annual Conference. 2013;2013:866–869.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolbrecht ET, Chan V, Reinkensmeyer DJ, Bobrow JE. Optimizing compliant, model-based robotic assistance to promote neurorehabilitation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2008;16(3):286–297.10.1109/TNSRE.2008.918389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain S, Xie SQ, Jamwal PK. Adaptive impedance control of a robotic orthosis for gait rehabilitation. IEEE Trans Cybern. 2013;43(3):1025–1034.10.1109/TSMCB.2012.2222374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dijk W, van der Kooij H, Koopman B, van Asseldonk EH, van der Kooij H. Improving the transparency of a rehabilitation robot by exploiting the cyclic behaviour of walking. IEEE Int Conf Rehabil Robotics [Proc]. 2013;2013:6650393.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cao J, Xie SQ, Das R, Zhu GL. Control strategies for effective robot assisted gait rehabilitation: The state of art and future prospects. Med Eng Physics. 2014;36(12):1555–1566.10.1016/j.medengphy.2014.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srivastava S, Kao PC, Kim SH, et al. Assist-as-needed robot-aided gait training improves walking function in individuals following stroke. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2015;23(6):956–963.10.1109/TNSRE.2014.2360822
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Timmermans AA, Spooren AI, Kingma H, Seelen HA. Influence of task-oriented training content on skilled arm-hand performance in stroke: A systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2010;24(9):858–870.10.1177/1545968310368963
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams G, Kahn M, Randall A. Strength training for walking in neurologic rehabilitation is not task specific: A focused review. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2014;93(6):511–522.10.1097/PHM.0000000000000058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner I, Skouen JS, Hofstad H, et al. Is upper limb virtual reality training more intensive than conventional training for patients in the subacute phase after stroke? An analysis of treatment intensity and content. BMC Neurol. 2016;16(1):S225.10.1186/s12883-016-0740-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar