Virtual reality in post-stroke neurorehabilitation – a systematic review and meta-analysis

References

• Feigin VL, Norrving B, Mensah GA. Global burden of stroke. Circulation Research. 2017;120(3):439–448. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.308413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luengo-Fernandez R, Violato M, Candio P, Leal J. Economic burden of stroke across Europe: a population-based cost analysis. European Stroke Journal. 2020;5(1):17–25. doi:10.1177/2396987319883160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abubakar SA, Isezuo SA. Health related quality of life of stroke survivors: experience of a stroke unit. Int J Biomed Sci. 2012;8:183–187.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brainin M, Norrving B, Sunnerhagen KS, et al. Poststroke chronic disease management: towards improved identification and interventions for poststroke spasticity-related complications. International Journal of Stroke. 2011;6(1):42–46. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4949.2010.00539.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faria AL, Andrade A, Soares L, i Badia SB. Benefits of virtual reality based cognitive rehabilitation through simulated activities of daily living: a randomized controlled trial with stroke patients. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation 2016;13:96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langhorne P, Coupar F, Pollock A. Motor recovery after stroke: a systematic review. The Lancet Neurology. 2009;8(8):741–754. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70150-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2011 update: a report from the american heart association. Circulation. 2011;123(4):e18–e209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Wolf SL, Dromerick AW, et al. Effect of a task-oriented rehabilitation program on upper extremity recovery following motor stroke: the ICARE randomized clinical trial. Jama. 2016;315(6):571–581. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.0276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Winters C, Van Wegen EE, et al. Effects of unilateral upper-limb training in two distinct prognostic groups early after stroke: the EXPLICIT-stroke randomized clinical trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2016;30(9):804–816. doi:10.1177/1545968315624784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yelnik AP, Quintaine V, Andriantsifanetra C, et al. AMOBES (active mobility very early after stroke) a randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 2017;48(2):400–405. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.014803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomeroy VM, Hunter SM, Johansen-Berg H, et al. Functional strength training versus movement performance therapy for upper-limb motor recovery early after stroke: a RCT. Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation. 2018;5(3):1–112. doi:10.3310/eme05030.
   Google Scholar
• Muresanu DF, Heiss W-D, Hoemberg V, et al. Cerebrolysin and recovery after stroke (CARS) A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter trial. Stroke. 2016;47(1):151–159. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.009416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer SC, Enney LA, Russell CK, Simeoni M, Thompson TR. Proof-of-concept randomized trial of the monoclonal antibody GSK249320 versus placebo in stroke patients. Stroke. 2017;48(3):692–698. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.014517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford GA, Bhakta BB, Cozens A, et al. Safety and efficacy of co-careldopa as an add-on therapy to occupational and physical therapy in patients after stroke (DARS): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet Neurology. 2019;18(6):530–538. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30147-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bath PM, Scutt P, Love J, et al. Pharyngeal electrical stimulation for treatment of dysphagia in subacute stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 2016;47(6):1562–1570. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.012455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy RM, Harvey RL, Kissela BM, et al. Epidural electrical stimulation for stroke rehabilitation: results of the prospective, multicenter, randomized, single-blinded everest trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2016;30(2):107–119. doi:10.1177/1545968315575613.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey RL, Edwards D, Dunning K, et al. Randomized sham-controlled trial of navigated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for motor recovery in stroke: the NICHE trial. Stroke. 2018;49(9):2138–2146. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.020607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saposnik G, Cohen LG, Mamdani M, et al. Efficacy and safety of non-immersive virtual reality exercising in stroke rehabilitation (EVREST): a randomised, multicentre, single-blind, controlled trial. The Lancet Neurology. 2016;15(10):1019–1027. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30121-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner I, Skouen JS, Hofstad H, et al. Virtual reality training for upper-extremity in subacute stroke (VIRTUES): a multicenter RCT. Neurology. 2017;89(24):2413–2421. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000004744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adie K, Schofield C, Berrow M, et al. Does the use of nintendo Wii SportsTM improve arm function? trial of WiiTM in Stroke: a randomized controlled trial and economics analysis. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2017;31(2):173–185. doi:10.1177/0269215516637893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer SC, Dodakian L, Le V, et al. Efficacy of home-based telerehabilitation vs in-clinic therapy for adults after stroke: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurology. 2019;76(9):1079–1087. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.1604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers H, Bosomworth H, Krebs HI, et al. Robot assisted training for the upper-limb after stroke (RATULS): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 2019;394(10192):51–62. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31055-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultheis MT, Rizzo AA. The application of virtual reality technology in rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Psychology. 2001;46(3):296. doi:10.1037/0090-5550.46.3.296.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin MF, Weiss PL, Keshner EA. Emergence of virtual reality as a tool for upper limb rehabilitation: incorporation of motor control and motor learning principles. Physical Therapy. 2015;95(3):415–425. doi:10.2522/ptj.20130579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Jones TA. Principles of Experience-dependent Neural Plasticity: Implications for Rehabilitation after Brain Damage. 2008 Feb;51(1):S225-39. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2008/018). PMID: 18230848.
   Google Scholar
• Merians AS, Jack D, Boian R, et al. Virtual reality–augmented rehabilitation for patients following stroke. Physical Therapy. 2002;82(9):898–915. doi:10.1093/ptj/82.9.898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke JW, McNeill M, Charles DK, Morrow PJ, Crosbie JH, McDonough SM. Optimising engagement for stroke rehabilitation using serious games. The Visual Computer. 2009;25(12):1085–1099. doi:10.1007/s00371-009-0387-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mihelj M, Novak D, Milavec M, Ziherl J, Olenšek A, Munih M. Virtual rehabilitation environment using principles of intrinsic motivation and game design. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments. 2012;21(1):1–15. doi:10.1162/PRES_a_00078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim W-S, Cho S, Park SH, Lee J-Y, Kwon S, Paik N-J. A low cost kinect-based virtual rehabilitation system for inpatient rehabilitation of the upper limb in patients with subacute stroke: a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled pilot trial. Medicine. 2018;97:25.
   Google Scholar
• Holden MK, Dyar TA, Dayan-Cimadoro L. Telerehabilitation using a virtual environment improves upper extremity function in patients with stroke. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 2007;15(1):36–42. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2007.891388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Int J Surg. 2010;8(5):336–341. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuinness LA, Higgins JPT. Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): an R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments. Research Synthesis Methods. 2020 Jan;12(1):55-61.;).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuinness LA, Higgins JPT. Risk-of-bias VISualization (robvis): an R package and Shiny web app for visualizing risk-of-bias assessments. Res Synth Methods. 2021;12(1):55–61. doi:10.1002/jrsm.1411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Silva Cameirão M, Bermudez i Badia S, Duarte E, Verschure PF. Virtual reality based rehabilitation speeds up functional recovery of the upper extremities after stroke: a randomized controlled pilot study in the acute phase of stroke using the rehabilitation gaming system. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 2011;29(5):287–298. doi:10.3233/RNN-2011-0599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiper P, Piron L, Turolla A, Stożek J, Tonin P. The effectiveness of reinforced feedback in virtual environment in the first 12 months after stroke. Neurologia I Neurochirurgia Polska. 2011;45(5):436–444. doi:10.1016/S0028-3843(14)60311-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho KH, Lee KJ, Song CH. Virtual-reality balance training with a video-game system improves dynamic balance in chronic stroke patients. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2012;228(1):69–74. doi:10.1620/tjem.228.69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosbie J, Lennon S, McGoldrick M, McNeill M, McDonough S. Virtual reality in the rehabilitation of the arm after hemiplegic stroke: a randomized controlled pilot study. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2012;26(9):798–806. doi:10.1177/0269215511434575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho K, Yu J, Jung J. Effects of virtual reality-based rehabilitation on upper extremity function and visual perception in stroke patients: a randomized control trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2012;24(11):1205–1208. doi:10.1589/jpts.24.1205.
   Google Scholar
• Kim EK, Kang JH, Park JS, Jung BH. Clinical feasibility of interactive commercial nintendo gaming for chronic stroke rehabilitation. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2012;24(9):901–903. doi:10.1589/jpts.24.901.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon J-S, Park M-J, Yoon I-J, Park S-H. Effects of virtual reality on upper extremity function and activities of daily living performance in acute stroke: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. NeuroRehabilitation. 2012;31(4):379–385. doi:10.3233/NRE-2012-00807.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barcala L, Grecco LAC, Colella F, Lucareli PRG, Salgado ASI, Oliveira CS. Visual biofeedback balance training using wii fit after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2013;25(8):1027–1032. doi:10.1589/jpts.25.1027.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singh DKA, Nordin NAM, Abd Aziz NA, Lim BK, Soh LC. Effects of substituting a portion of standard physiotherapy time with virtual reality games among community-dwelling stroke survivors. BMC Neurology. 2013;13(1):1–7. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-13-199.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rajaratnam B, Gui Kaien J, Lee Jialin K, et al. Does the inclusion of virtual reality games within conventional rehabilitation enhance balance retraining after a recent episode of stroke?. Rehabilitation Research and Practice. 2013; 2013.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park Y-H, Lee C-H, Lee B-H. Clinical usefulness of the virtual reality-based postural control training on the gait ability in patients with stroke. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation. 2013;9:489.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Choi JH, Han EY, Kim BR, et al. Effectiveness of commercial gaming-based virtual reality movement therapy on functional recovery of upper extremity in subacute stroke patients. Ann Rehabil Med. 2014;38(4):485. doi:10.5535/arm.2014.38.4.485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kiper P, Agostini M, Luque-Moreno C, Tonin P, Turolla A. Reinforced feedback in virtual environment for rehabilitation of upper extremity dysfunction after stroke: preliminary data from a randomized controlled trial. Biomed Res Int. 2014; 2014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee D, Lee M, Lee K, Song C. Asymmetric training using virtual reality reflection equipment and the enhancement of upper limb function in stroke patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2014;23(6):1319–1326. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2013.11.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SJ, Chun MH. Combination transcranial direct current stimulation and virtual reality therapy for upper extremity training in patients with subacute stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2014;95:431–438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen D, Taillon-Hobson A, Bilodeau M, Sveistrup H, Finestone H. Virtual reality exercise improves mobility after stroke: an inpatient randomized controlled trial. Stroke. 2014;45(6):1853–1855. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.005362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin J-H, Ryu H, Jang SH. A task-specific interactive game-based virtual reality rehabilitation system for patients with stroke: a usability test and two clinical experiments. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation. 2014;11(1):32. doi:10.1186/1743-0003-11-32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song YB, Chun MH, Kim W, Lee SJ, Yi JH, Park DH. The effect of virtual reality and tetra-ataxiometric posturography programs on stroke patients with impaired standing balance. Ann Rehabil Med. 2014;38(2):160. doi:10.5535/arm.2014.38.2.160.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yin CW, Sien NY, Ying LA, Chung SF-CM. tan may leng D. virtual reality for upper extremity rehabilitation in early stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2014;28(11):1107–1114. doi:10.1177/0269215514532851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Silva Ribeiro NM, Ferraz DD, É P, et al. Virtual rehabilitation via nintendo Wii® and conventional physical therapy effectively treat post-stroke hemiparetic patients. Top Stroke Rehabil. 2015;22(4):299–305. doi:10.1179/1074935714Z.0000000017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fluet GG, Merians AS, Qiu Q, Rohafaza M, VanWingerden AM, Adamovich S. Does training with traditionally presented and virtually simulated tasks elicit differing changes in object interaction kinematics in persons with upper extremity hemiparesis? Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2015;22(3):176–184. doi:10.1179/1074935714Z.0000000008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Givon N, Zeilig G, Weingarden H, Rand D. Video-games used in a group setting is feasible and effective to improve indicators of physical activity in individuals with chronic stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2016;30(4):383–392. doi:10.1177/0269215515584382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim N, Park Y, Lee B-H. Effects of community-based virtual reality treadmill training on balance ability in patients with chronic stroke. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2015;27(3):655–658. doi:10.1589/jpts.27.655.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee HY, Kim YL, Lee SM. Effects of virtual reality-based training and task-oriented training on balance performance in stroke patients. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2015;27(6):1883–1888. doi:10.1589/jpts.27.1883.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lloréns R, Noé E, Colomer C, Alcañiz M. Effectiveness, usability, and cost-benefit of a virtual reality–based telerehabilitation program for balance recovery after stroke: a randomized controlled tria. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2015;96(3):418–25. e2. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2014.10.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloréns R, J-a G-G, Alcañiz M, Colomer C, Noé E. Improvement in balance using a virtual reality-based stepping exercise: a randomized controlled trial involving individuals with chronic stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2015;29(3):261–268. doi:10.1177/0269215514543333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin J-H, Park SB, Jang SH. Effects of game-based virtual reality on health-related quality of life in chronic stroke patients: a randomized, controlled study. Computers in Biology and Medicine. 2015;63:92–98. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2015.03.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng C-J, Liao W-J, Xia W-G. Effect of combined low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and virtual reality training on upper limb function in subacute stroke: a double-blind randomized controlled trail. Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology [Medical Sciences]. 2015;35(2):248–254. doi:10.1007/s11596-015-1419-0.
   Google Scholar
• Şimşek TT, Çekok K. The effects of Nintendo WiiTM-based balance and upper extremity training on activities of daily living and quality of life in patients with sub-acute stroke: a randomized controlled study. International Journal of Neuroscience. 2016;126(12):1061–1070. doi:10.3109/00207454.2015.1115993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin J-H, Kim M-Y, Lee J-Y, et al. Effects of virtual reality-based rehabilitation on distal upper extremity function and health-related quality of life: a single-blinded, randomized controlled trial. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 2016;13(1):17. doi:10.1186/s12984-016-0125-x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• In T, Lee K, Song C. Virtual reality reflection therapy improves balance and gait in patients with chronic stroke: randomized controlled trials. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research. 2016;22:4046–4053. doi:10.12659/MSM.898157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi Y-H, Ku J, Lim H, Kim YH, Paik N-J. Mobile game-based virtual reality rehabilitation program for upper limb dysfunction after ischemic stroke. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 2016;34(3):455–463. doi:10.3233/RNN-150626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kong K-H, Loh Y-J, Thia E, et al. Efficacy of a virtual reality commercial gaming device in upper limb recovery after stroke: a randomized, controlled study. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2016;23(5):333–340. doi:10.1080/10749357.2016.1139796.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedreira da Fonseca E, Nm DSR, Pinto EB. therapeutic effect of virtual reality on post-stroke patients: randomized clinical trial. journal of stroke and cerebrovascular diseases. The Official Journal of National Stroke Association. 2017;26:94–100.
   Google Scholar
• Park DS, Lee DG, Lee K, Lee G. Effects of virtual reality training using xbox kinect on motor function in stroke survivors: a preliminary study. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association. 2017;26(10):2313–2319. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2017.05.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faria AL, Cameirão MS, Couras JF, Aguiar JR, Costa GM, Bermúdez i Badia S. Combined cognitive-motor rehabilitation in virtual reality improves motor outcomes in chronic stroke–a pilot study. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018;9:854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikbali Afsar S, Mirzayev I, Umit Yemisci O, Cosar Saracgil SN. Virtual reality in upper extremity rehabilitation of stroke patients: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases: The Official Journal of National Stroke Association. 2018;27(12):3473–3478. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.08.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers JM, Duckworth J, Middleton S, Steenbergen B, Wilson PH. Elements virtual rehabilitation improves motor, cognitive, and functional outcomes in adult stroke: evidence from a randomized controlled pilot study. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16(1):56. doi:10.1186/s12984-019-0531-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim BR, Chun MH, Kim LS, Park JY. Effect of virtual reality on cognition in stroke patients. Ann Rehabil Med. 2011;35(4):450–459. doi:10.5535/arm.2011.35.4.450.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morse H, Biggart L, Pomeroy V, Rossit S. Exploring perspectives from stroke survivors, carers and clinicians on virtual reality as a precursor to using telerehabilitation for spatial neglect post-stroke. Neuropsychol Rehabil. 2020;1–25. doi:10.1080/09602011.2020.1819827.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim BR, Chun MH, Kim LS, Park JY. Effect of virtual reality on cognition in stroke patients. Ann Rehabil Med. 2011;35:450–459.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gamito P, Oliveira J, Coelho C, et al. Cognitive training on stroke patients via virtual reality-based serious games. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2017;39(4):385–388. doi:10.3109/09638288.2014.934925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adomavičienė A, Daunoravičienė K, Kubilius R, Varžaitytė L, Raistenskis J. Influence of new technologies on post-stroke rehabilitation: a comparison of armeo spring to the kinect system. Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania). 2019;55:4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maier M, Ballester BR, Bañuelos NL, Oller ED, Verschure PF. Adaptive conjunctive cognitive training (ACCT) in virtual reality for chronic stroke patients: a randomized controlled pilot trial. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation. 2020;17(1):1–20. doi:10.1186/s12984-020-0652-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho KH, Lee KJ, Song CH. Virtual-reality balance training with a video-game system improves dynamic balance in chronic stroke patients. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2012;228:69–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons EM, Thomson AN, de Noronha M, Joseph S. Are virtual reality technologies effective in improving lower limb outcomes for patients following stroke–a systematic review with meta-analysis. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2016;23(6):440–457. doi:10.1080/10749357.2016.1183349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bao X, Mao Y, Lin Q, et al. Mechanism of Kinect-based virtual reality training for motor functional recovery of upper limbs after subacute stroke. Neural Regen Res. 2013;8(31):2904–2913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porras DC, Siemonsma P, Inzelberg R, Zeilig G, Plotnik M. Advantages of virtual reality in the rehabilitation of balance and gait: systematic review. Neurology. 2018;90(22):1017–1025. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000005603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugarman H, Weisel-Eichler A, Burstin A, Brown R, editors. Use of novel virtual reality system for the assessment and treatment of unilateral spatial neglect: A feasibility study. 2011 International Conference on Virtual Rehabilitation; 2011: Zurich, Switzerland IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Pedroli E, Serino S, Cipresso P, Pallavicini F, Riva G. Assessment and rehabilitation of neglect using virtual reality: a systematic review. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2015;9:226. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fordell H, Bodin K, Bucht G, Malm J. A virtual reality test battery for assessment and screening of spatial neglect. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 2011;123(3):167–174. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2010.01390.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skidmore ER, Whyte EM, Holm MB, et al. Cognitive and affective predictors of rehabilitation participation after stroke. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2010;91(2):203–207. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2009.10.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho DR, Lee SH. Effects of virtual reality immersive training with computerized cognitive training on cognitive function and activities of daily living performance in patients with acute stage stroke: a preliminary randomized controlled trial. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(11):e14752. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000014752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherniack EP. Not just fun and games: applications of virtual reality in the identification and rehabilitation of cognitive disorders of the elderly. Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology. 2011;6(4):283–289. doi:10.3109/17483107.2010.542570.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cikajlo I, Rudolf M, Goljar N, Burger H, Matjačić Z. Telerehabilitation using virtual reality task can improve balance in patients with stroke. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2012;34(1):13–18. doi:10.3109/09638288.2011.583308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamman MM, Cutter GR, Brienza DM, et al. Medical rehabilitation: guidelines to advance the field with high-impact clinical trials. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2018;99(12):2637–2648. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2018.08.173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse KR, Pathania A, Wegman R, Boyd LA, Lang CE. On the reporting of experimental and control therapies in stroke rehabilitation trials: a systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2018;99(7):1424–1432. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2017.12.024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson CO, Nguyen M, Roth GA, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of stroke, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. The Lancet Neurology. 2019;18(5):439–458. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30034-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW, Carmichael ST, Corbett D, Wittenberg GF. Getting neurorehabilitation right: what can be learned from animal models? Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2012;26(8):923–931. doi:10.1177/1545968312440745.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan PW, Lai SM, Keighley J. Defining post-stroke recovery: implications for design and interpretation of drug trials. Neuropharmacology. 2000;39(5):835–841. doi:10.1016/S0028-3908(00)00003-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeiler SR, Krakauer JW. The interaction between training and plasticity in the post-stroke brain. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2013;26(6):609. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overman JJ, Carmichael ST. Plasticity in the injured brain: more than molecules matter. The Neuroscientist. 2014;20(1):15–28. doi:10.1177/1073858413491146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biernaskie J, Chernenko G, Corbett D. Efficacy of rehabilitative experience declines with time after focal ischemic brain injury. Journal of Neuroscience. 2004;24(5):1245–1254. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3834-03.2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse KR, Schaefer SY, Raikes AC, Boyd LA, Lang CE. Asking new questions with old data: the centralized open-access rehabilitation database for stroke. Frontiers in Neurology. 2016;7:153. doi:10.3389/fneur.2016.00153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinear CM, Lang CE, Zeiler S, Byblow WD. Advances and challenges in stroke rehabilitation. The Lancet Neurology. 2020;19(4):348–360. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30415-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker MF, Hoffmann TC, Brady MC, et al. Improving the development, monitoring and reporting of stroke rehabilitation research: consensus-based core recommendations from the stroke recovery and rehabilitation roundtable. International Journal of Stroke. 2017;12(5):472–479. doi:10.1177/1747493017711815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker JC, Ricci-Cabello I, Parker A, et al. Impact of patient and public involvement on enrolment and retention in clinical trials: systematic review and meta-analysis. bmj. 2018; 363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb EM, Meurer W, Harney D, et al. Patient engagement in neurological clinical trials design: a conference summary. Clinical and Translational Science. 2015;8(6):776–778. doi:10.1111/cts.12297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foundation S. Clinical guidelines for stroke management 2017 [Available from: https://informme.org.au/Guidelines/Clinical-Guidelines-for-Stroke-Management.
   Google Scholar
• Excellence NIfHaC. Stroke overview. [ Available from: https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/strok.e
   Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Stein J, Arena R, et al. Guidelines for adult stroke rehabilitation and recovery: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the american heart association/american stroke association. Stroke. 2016;47(6):e98–e169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornby TG, Holleran CL, Hennessy PW, et al. Variable intensive early walking poststroke (views) a randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2016;30(5):440–450. doi:10.1177/1545968315604396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krakauer JW, Cortés JC. A non-task-oriented approach based on high-dose playful movement exploration for rehabilitation of the upper limb early after stroke: a proposal. NeuroRehabilitation. 2018;43(1):31–40. doi:10.3233/NRE-172411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schröder J, Van Criekinge T, Embrechts E, et al. Combining the benefits of tele-rehabilitation and virtual reality-based balance training: a systematic review on feasibility and effectiveness. Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology. 2019;14(1):2–11. doi:10.1080/17483107.2018.1503738.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao X, Cui L, Wang J, Feng W, Bao Y, Xie Q. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation with virtual reality on upper limb function in patients with ischemic stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 2020;17(1):73. doi:10.1186/s12984-020-00699-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade E, Winstein CJ. Virtual reality and robotics for stroke rehabilitation: where do we go from here? Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation. 2011;18(6):685–700. doi:10.1310/tsr1806-685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards J, Vess J, Reger G, Cernich A. The use of virtual reality in the military’s assessment of service members with traumatic brain injury: recent developments and emerging opportunities. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. 2014;21(3):220–230. doi:10.1080/09084282.2013.796554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzo AA, Strickland D, Bouchard S. The challenge of using virtual reality in telerehabilitation. Telemedicine Journal & E-Health. 2004;10(2):184–195. doi:10.1089/tmj.2004.10.184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzo AS, Kim GJ. A SWOT analysis of the field of virtual reality rehabilitation and therapy. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments. 2005;14(2):119–146. doi:10.1162/1054746053967094.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar