582
Views
40
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Scholarly Review

Microbial Exposure Assessment of Waterborne Pathogens

, , , &
Pages 1313-1351 | Received 01 Mar 2007, Accepted 28 May 2007, Published online: 07 Nov 2007

REFERENCES

  • Altekruse , S F , Stern , N J Fields , P I . 1999 . Campylobacter jejuni—an emerging foodborne pathogen . Emerg Infect Dis. , 5 : 28 – 35 .
  • Andersson , Y , de Jong , B and Studahl , A . 1997 . Waterborne Campylobacter in Sweden: The cost of an outbreak . Wat Sci and Tech , 35 ( 11 ) : 11 – 4 .
  • Arnold , J G and Fohrer , N . 2005 . Current capabilities and research opportunities in applied watershed modelling . Hydrolog Processes , 19 : 563 – 72 .
  • Artz , R RE and Killham , K . 2002 . Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in private drinking water wells: Influences of protozoan grazing and elevated copper concentrations . FEMS Microbiol Lett , 216 : 117 – 2 .
  • Ashbolt , N J . 2004 . Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions . Toxicology , 198 ( 1–3 ) : 229 – 38 .
  • Baffaut , C and Benson , V W . A bacteria TMDL for Shoal Creek using SWAT modeling and DNA source tracking . Total Maximum Daily Load TMDL Environmental Regulations II. ASAE Proceedings . Albuquerque, NM, USA.
  • Balbus , J and Embrey , M A . 2002 . Risk factors for waterborne enteric infections . Current Opinion in Gastroenterology , 18 ( 1 ) : 46 – 50 .
  • Bemrah , N , Bergis , H Colmin , C . 2003 . Quantitative risk assessment of human salmonellosis from the consumption of a turkey product in collective catering establishments . Int J Fd Microbio , 80 ( 1 ) : 17 – 30 .
  • Bicknell , B R , Imhoff , J C Kittle , J L . 2000 . Hydrologic Simulation Program—Fortran, Version 12, User's Manual. (Computer program manual) , Mountain View, CA, , USA : AQUA TERRA Consultants .
  • Boak , R A and Packman , M J . 2001 . A methodology for the assessment of risk of Cryptosporidium contamination of groundwater . Quarterly J Engineering Geology Hydrogeology , 34 ( 2 ) : 187 – 94 .
  • Bottcher , A B and Hiscock , J G . WAMView—A GIS/land primary source of bacteria and pathogens on agricul- source based approach to watershed assessment modelling . Proc. of the TMDL Science Issues Conf. Mar. 2001 , St. Louis, MO, USA. pp. 112 – 23 . Frederick, MD, , USA : Water Environ. Fed. .
  • Bouraoui , F . 1994 . Development of a Continuous, Physically-Based, Distributed Parameter, Nonpoint Source Model (ANSWERS2000) , Ph.D. dissertation Blacksburg, VA, , USA : Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University .
  • Bouraoui , F and Dillaha , T A . 1996 . ANSWERS-2000: Runoff and sediment transport model . J Environ Engineering , 122 ( 6 ) : 493 – 502 .
  • Bouraoui , F and Dillaha , T A . 2000 . ANSWERS-2000: Non-point-source nutrient planning model . J Environ Engineering , 126 ( 11 ) : 1045 – 54 .
  • Carlow County Council . 2005 . Carlow County Council Report on Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Carlow Town & environs 2005 Available at www.countycarlow.ie/services/healthwarnings/reports/CryptosporidiumReportFinal.doc
  • Carson , J WK . 1989 . Changing patterns in childhood gastroenteritis . IMJ , 82 ( 2 ) : 66 – 7 .
  • CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) . 2003a . Giardia and drinking water from private wells Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/healthywater/factsheets/pdf/giardia.pdf
  • CDC . 2003b . Salmonella and drinking water from private wells Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/healthywater/factsheets/pdf/salmonellosis.pdf
  • CDC . 2003c . Rotavirus and drinking water from private wells Available at http://www.cdc.gov/Ncidod/dpd/healthywater/factsheets/pdf/rotavirus.pdf
  • CDC . 2003d . Noroviruses (Norwalk-like Viruses) and drinking water from private wells Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/healthywater/factsheets/pdf/norovirus.pdf
  • Chang , C , Lo , S and Chen , M . 2006 . Uncertainty in watershed response predictions induced by spatial variability of precipitation . Environ Monit Assess , 127 : 147 – 5 .
  • Charatan , F . 1999 . New York outbreak of E coli poisoning affects 1000 and kills two . BMJ , 319 : 873
  • Chaubey , I , Haan , C T Grunwald , S . 1999 . Uncertainty in the model parameters due to spatial variability of rainfall . J Hydrology , 220 : 48 – 61 .
  • Coleman , M E and Marks , H M . 1999 . Qualitative and quantitative risk assessment . J Food Cont , 10 ( 4–5 ) : 289 – 97 .
  • Collins , R and Rutherford , K . 2004 . Modelling bacterial water quality in streams draining pastoral land . Water Res , 38 : 700 – 1 .
  • Corbett-Feeney , G . 1987 . Cryptosporidium among children with acute diarrhoea in the West of Ireland . J Infect , 14 : 79 – 8 .
  • Craun , G F , Hubbs , S A Frost , F . 1998 . Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis . J Am Water Works Assoc , 90 ( 9 ) : 81 – 91 .
  • Craun , M F , Craun , G F Calderon , R L . 2006 . Waterborne outbreaks reported in the United States Available at http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/articles/2006/waterborne_disease/waterborne_outbreaks.pdf
  • Dabral , S and Cohen , M . 2001 . ANSWERS-2000 Areal non-point source watershed. Environment response simulation with questions graphical user interface Available at http://faculty.abe.ufl.edu/∼klc/abe6254/answers01.pdf
  • Dalle , F , Roz , P Dautin , G . 2003 . Molecular characterization of isolates of waterborne Cryptosporidium spp. collected during an outbreak of gastroenteritis in South Burgundy, France . J Clin Microbiol , 41 : 2690 – 3 .
  • Danon-Schaffer , M N . 2001 . Walkerton's contaminated water supply system: A forensic approach to identifying the source . Environ Forensics , 2 : 197 – 20 .
  • DeGuise , K A , Wolfe , M L and Dillaha , T A . 1999 . A foundation for modelling bacterial contamination of surface waters due to nonpoint sources , St. Joseph, MI, , USA : ASAE . ASAE Meeting Presentation No. 99-2153
  • Deliman , P N , Glick , R H and Ruiz , C E . 1999 . Review of Watershed Water Quality Models , Vicksburg, MS, , USA : US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station . U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Tech. Rep. W-99-1
  • Donigian , A S and Patwardhan , A S . Modelling nutrient loadings from croplands in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed . Proceedings of water resources sessions at Water Forum 1992 . August 2–6 , Baltimore, MD, USA. pp. 817 – 22 .
  • Donigian , A S , Bicknell , B R Linker , L C . 1990 . Chesapeake Bay Program Watershed Model Application to Calculate Bay Nutrient Loadings: Preliminary Phase I Findings and Recommendations , Annapolis, MD, , USA : AQUA TERRA consultants . Prepared for the U.S. Chesapeake Bay Program
  • Engberg , J , Gerner-Smidt , P Scheutz , F . 1998 . Water-borne Campylobacter jejuni infection in a Danish town—A 6-week continuous source outbreak . Clin Microbiol Infect , 4 ( 11 ) : 648 – 56 .
  • ESI (Environmental Simulations Internationals) . 2006 . RAM: A risk assessment modelling tool Available at http://www.groundwatermodels.com/software/SoftwareDesc.asp?software_id=10&software_desc_id=75
  • European Commission . 2000 . Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council 2000/60/EC establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy. European Commission. 1997/0067 (COD) C5-0347/2000 LEX 224
  • European Commission . 2006 . Drinking water directive Available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/index_en.htm
  • Evans , B M , Lehning , D W Corradini , K J . 2002 . A comprehensive GIS-based modelling approach for predicting nutrient loads in watersheds . J Spatial Hydrology , 2 ( 2 ) : 1 – 18 .
  • Fayer , R . 1997 . Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis , Boston, MA, , USA : CRC Press .
  • Fayer , R . 2004 . Cryptosporidium: A water-borne zoonotic parasite . Veterinary Parasitology , 126 : 37 – 56 .
  • Fayer , R , Morgan , U and Upton , S J . 2000 . Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: Transmission, detection, and identification . Int J Parasitol , 30 : 1305 – 2 .
  • Ferguson , C . 2005 . Deterministic Model of Microbial Sources, Fate and Transport: A Quantitative Tool for Pathogen Catchment Budgeting , Ph.D. dissertation Sydney, , Australia : Department of Biotechnology and Biomoloecular Science, Faculty of Science, The University of New South Wales .
  • Ferguson , C M , Altavilla , N Ashbolt , N J . 2003 . Prioritizing watershed pathogen research . J Am Wat Works Assoc , 95 ( 2 ) : 92 – 102 .
  • Ferguson , C M , Croke , B Ashbolt , N J . 2005 . A deterministic model to quantify pathogen loads in drinking water catchments: Pathogen budget for the Wingecarribee . Wat Sci & Tech , 52 ( 8 ) : 191 – 7 .
  • Fleming , R , Hocking , D Fraser , H . 1999 . Extent and Magnitude of Agricultural Sources of Cryptosporidium in Surface Water , West Guelph, ON, , Canada : Agricultural Adaptation Council . Final report project #40
  • Foppen , J WA and Schijven , J F . 2006 . Evaluation of data from the literature on the transport and survival of Escherichia coli and thermotolerant coliforms in aquifers under saturated conditions . Water Res , 40 ( 3 ) : 401 – 26 .
  • Fraser , R H . 1999 . SEDMOD: A GIS-Based Delivery Model for Diffuse Source Pollutants , Ph.D. dissertation New Haven, CT, , USA : Yale University .
  • Fraser , R H , Barten , P K and Pinney , D AK . 1998 . Predicting stream pathogen loading from livestock using a geographical information system-based delivery model . J Environ Qual , 27 : 935 – 45 .
  • FSAI (Food Safety Authority of Ireland) . 2006 . Safety of potable water in Ireland Available at http://www.fsai.ie/publications/other/water_report.pdf
  • FSAI . 2002 . Water-associated outbreaks, 1998–2001 . FSAI news letter , 4 ( 3 ) Available at http://www.fsai.ie/news/newsletter/nl_02/images/may_table1.htm
  • Gagliardi , J V and Karns , J S . 2000 . Leaching of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in diverse soils under various agricultural management practices . Appl Environ Microbiol , 66 : 877 – 8 .
  • Gale , P . 2001 . Developments in microbiological risk assessment for drinking water . J Appl Microbiol , 91 : 191 – 20 .
  • Garnier , M , Leone , A Uricchio , V . 1996 . “ Application of GLEAMS model to assess groundwater pollution risk caused by animal waste land disposal ” . In Contaminated Land and Groundwater—Future Directions , Edited by: Lerner , D N and Walton , N . 119 – 27 . Portsmouth, UK : University of Portsmouth . September 8–12, Proceedings of 32nd Annual Conference of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society
  • Garnier , M , Lo Porto , A Marini , R . 1998 . Integrated use of GLEAMS and GIS to prevent groundwater pollution caused by agricultural disposal of animal waste . Envir Manag , 22 ( 5 ) : 747 – 56 .
  • Garvey , P . 2006 . Data presented at the annual meeting of the Safefood Cryptosporidium research network , Dublin, , Ireland : University College Dublin . December 8
  • Garvey , P and McKeown , P . 2005 . Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis in Ireland, 2004 . EPI-Insight , 6 ( 11 ) : 2 – 3 . Health Protection Surveillance Centre, Dublin, Ireland
  • Garvey , P , Mc Keown , P Carroll , A . 2005 . Epidemiology of Verotoxigenic E. coli O157 in Ireland, 2004 . EPIInsight , 6 ( 12 ) : 2 – 3 . Health Protection Surveillance Centre, Dublin, Ireland
  • Glaberman , S , Moore , J E Lowery , C J . 2002 . Three drinking-water-associated outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. Northern Ireland . Emerg Infect Dis , 8 : 631 – 3 .
  • Graczyk , T K , Evans , B M Shiff , C J . 2000 . Environmental and geographical factors contributing to watershed contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts . Environ Res , 82 : 263 – 71 .
  • Gratacap-Cavallier , B , Genoulaz , O Brengel-Pesce , K . 2000 . Detection of human and animal rotavirus sequences in drinking water . Appl Environ Microbiol , 66 : 2690 – 2 .
  • Haas , C N , Thayyar-Madabusi , A Rose , J B . 2000 . Development of a dose-response relationship for Escherichia coli O157:H7 . Int J Food Microbiol , 56 : 153 – 9 .
  • Haith , D A and Shoemaker , L L . 1987 . Generalized watershed loading functions for stream flow nutrients . Water Resources Bulletin , 23 ( 3 ) : 471 – 8 .
  • Haith , D R , Mandel , R and Wu , R S . 1992 . GWLF: Generalized Watershed Loading Functions User's Manual Vers. 2.0. (Computer program manual) , Ithaca, NY, , USA : Cornell University .
  • Hancock , D D , Besser , T E Rice , D H . 1997 . A longitudinal study of Escherichia coli O157 in fourteen cattle herds . Epidemiol Infect , 118 : 193 – 5 .
  • Harris Ali , S. 2004 . A socio-ecological autopsy of the E. coli O157:H7 outbreak in Walkerton, Ontario, Canada . Soc Sci & Med , 58 : 2601 – 12 .
  • Hawker , J , Begg , N B Blair , B . 2001 . Communicable Disease Control Handbook , Oxford, UK : Blackwell .
  • Hörman , A , Rimhanen-Finne , R Maunula , L . 2004 . Campylobacter spp. Giardia spp. Cryptosporidium spp. noroviruses and indicator organisms in surface water in southwestern Finland 2000–2001 . Appl Environ Microbiol , 70 : 87 – 95 .
  • Hoxie , N J , Davis , J P Vergeron , J M . 1997 . Cryptosporidiosis associated mortality following a massive waterborne outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin . Am J Pub Health , 87 : 2032 – 5 .
  • HPSC (Health Protection Surveillance Centre) . 2006 . Annual report 2005 Available at http://www.ndsc.ie/hpsc/AboutHPSC/AnnualReports/File,2141,en.pdf
  • Hrudey , S E and Hrudey , E J . 2004 . Safe Drinking Water: Lessons from Recent Outbreaks in Affluent Nations , London, UK : IWA Publishing .
  • Hunter , P R and Thompson , R C . 2005 . The zoonotic transmission of Giardia Cryptosporidium . Int J Parasitol , 35 : 1181 – 9 .
  • Ireland EPA (Ireland Environmental Protection Agency) . 2004 . European Communities (Drinking Water) Regulations, 2000 (S. I. 439 of 2000) A Handbook on Implementation for Sanitary Authorities 137 – 150 . Available at http://www.epa.ie/OfficeofEnvironmental Enforcement/PublicAuthorityEnforcement/DrinkingWater/DrinkingWaterDownloads/FileUpload,5404,en.pdf
  • Jakeman , A J and Letcher , R A . 2003 . Integrated assessment and modelling: Features, principles and examples for catchment management . Environmental Modelling & Software , 18 : 491 – 50 .
  • Jamieson , R , Gordon , R Joy , D . 2004 . Assessing microbial pollution of rural surface waters: A review of current watershed scale modeling approaches . Agric Wat Man , 70 : 1 – 17 .
  • Jamieson , R , Joy , D B Lee , H . 2005 . Transport and deposition of sediment-associated Escherichia coli in natural streams . Water Res , 39 : 2665 – 75 .
  • Jennings , P and Rhatigan , A . 2002 . Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Ireland linked to public water supply. Eurosurveillance Weekly Available at www.eurosurveillance.org/ew/2002/020530.asp
  • Kalin , L and Hantush , M M . 2003 . Evaluation of sediment transport models and comparative application of two watershed models Available at http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r03139/600r03139.pdf
  • Kang , M S , Park , S W Lee , J J . 2006 . Applying SWAT for TMDL programs to a small watershed containing rice paddy fields . Agric Wat Man , 79 : 72 – 92 .
  • Karanis , P . 2006 . A review of an emerging waterborne medical important parasitic protozoan . Jpn J Protozool , 39 ( 1 ) : 5 – 18 .
  • Kistemann , T , Claßen , T Koch , C . 2002 . Microbial load of drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall and runoff . Appl Environ Microbiol , 68 ( 5 ) : 2188 – 97 .
  • Knisel , W G and Davis , F M . 2000 . GLEAMS: Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricultural Management Systems. Version 3.0 , Tifton, GA, , USA : US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southeast Watershed Research Laboratory . Publication No. SEWRL-WGK/FMD-050199
  • Kramer , M H , Quade , G Hartemann , P . 2001 . Waterborne diseases in Europe—1986–96 . J American Wat Res Assoc , 93 : 48 – 53 .
  • LaWare , P and Rifai , H S . 2006 . Modeling fecal coliform contamination in the Rio Grande . J Am Wat Res Assoc , 42 ( 2 ) : 337 – 56 .
  • LeChevallier , M W , Norton , W D and Lee , R G . 1991 . Giardia Cryptosporidium spp. in filtered drinking water supplies . Appl Enviro Microbiol , 57 ( 9 ) : 2617 – 21 .
  • Lee , K Y , Fisher , T R Jordan , T E . 2000 . Modeling the hydrochemistry of the Choptank River basin using GWLF and GIS . Biogeochem. , 49 : 143 – 73 .
  • LeJeune , J T , Besser , T E and Hancock , D D . 2001 . Cattle water troughs as reservoirs of Escherichia coli O157 . Appl Environ Microbiol , 67 : 3053 – 7 .
  • Licence , K , Oates , K R Synge , B A . 2001 . An outbreak of E. coli O157 infection with evidence of spread from animals to man through contamination of a private water supply . Epidemiol Infect , 126 : 135 – 8 .
  • MacKenzie , W R , Hoxie , N J Proctor , M E . 1994 . A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply . N Engl J Med , 331 : 161 – 7 .
  • Mason , G . 2004 . Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Development for the Beaver Creek Watershed Available at http://www.deq.virginia.gov/tmdl/apptmdls/tenbigrvr/beaver.pdf
  • Maule , A . 1997 . “ Survival of the verotoxigenic strain E. coli O157 in laboratory scale microcosms ” . In Coliforms and E. coli: Problem or Solution , Edited by: Kay , D and Fricker , C . 61 – 5 . Gateshead, UK : Athenaeum Press .
  • Maunula , L , Miettinen , I T and von Bonsdorff , C . 2005 . Norovirus outbreaks from drinking water; Emerg Infect Dis Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no11/05-0487.htm
  • Mawdsley , J L , Bardgett , R D Merry , R J . 1995 . Pathogens in livestock waste, their potential for movement through soil and environmental pollution . Appl Soil Ecol , 2 : 1 – 15 .
  • McEvoy , J M , Duffy , G Moriarty , E M . 2005 . The prevalence and characterisation of Cryptosporidium spp. in beef abattoir water supplies . Water Res , 39 ( 15 ) : 3697 – 703 .
  • McGechan , M B , Lewis , D R and Vinten , A JA . Farm-scale modelling of water pollution from livestock enterprises . Written for presentation at the 2004 ASAE/CSAE Fairment Chateau Laurier, The Westin, Government Centre . August 1–4 , Ottawa, ON, Canada.
  • Medema , G J and Schijven , J F . 2001 . Modelling the sewage discharge and dispersion of Cryptosporidium Giardia in surface water . Water Res , 35 : 4307 – 1 .
  • Medema , G J , Payment , P Dufour , A . 2003 . “ Safe drinking water: An ongoing challenge ” . In Assessing Microbial Safety of Drinking Water , 11 – 47 . London, UK : IWA Publishing .
  • Moore , J A , Smith , J D Baker , E S . 1989 . Modeling bacteria movement in livestock manure systems . Trans ASAE , 32 ( 3 ) : 1049 – 53 .
  • Moyer , D L and Hyer , K E . 2003 . Use of the Hydrological Simulation Program—FORTRAN and Bacteria Source Tracking for Development of the Fecal Coliform Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for Christians Creek, Augusta County, Virginia [Online]. Water-Resour http://www.deq.virginia.gov/tmdl/apptmdls/shenrvr/chrstnfc.pdf Investigations Rep. 03-4162. Available at
  • Murphy , E M and Ginn , T R . 2000 . Modeling microbial processes in porous media . Hydrogeology J , 8 : 142 – 5 .
  • NDSC (National Disease Surveillance Centre) . 2004 . Report of Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis Subcommittee of the Scientific Advisory Committee Available at http://www.ndsc.ie/hpsc/AZ/Gastroenteric/Cryptosporidiosis/Publications/File,898,en.pdf
  • NDSC . 2005 . http://www.ndsc.ie/hpsc/A-Z/Gastroenteric/VTEC/Guidance/File,1458,en.pdf Report of the HPSC Sub-Committee on Verotoxigenic E. coli. Available at
  • Nicholson , F A , Groves , S J and Chambers , B J . 2005 . Pathogen survival during livestock manure storage and following land application . Bioresource Tech , 96 : 135 – 4 .
  • Novotny , V and Olem , H . 1994 . Water Quality: Prevention, Identification, and Management of Diffuse Pollution , New York, NY, , USA : Van Nostrand Reinhold .
  • Nygard , K , Torven , M Ancker , C . 2003 . Emerging genotype (GGIIb) of norovirus in drinking water, Sweden . Emerg Infect Dis , 9 : 1548 – 52 .
  • Ogden , L D , Fenlon , D R Vinten , A J . 2001 . The fate of Escherichia coli O157 in soil and its potential to contaminate drinking water . Int J Food Microbiol , 66 ( 1–2 ) : 111 – 7 .
  • O'Hare , C , Doran , G Delappe , N . 2004 . Antimicrobial resistance and phage types of human and non-human Salmonella enterica isolates in Ireland, 1998–2003 . Commun Dis Public Health. , 7 ( 3 ) : 193 – 9 .
  • Olsen , S J , Miller , G Kennedy , M . 2002 . A waterborne outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections and hemolytic uremic syndrome: Implications for rural water systems . Emerg Infect Dis , 8 : 370 – 5 .
  • O'Toole , C E , Jennings , P Meagher , G . 2004 . Cryptosporidium Outbreak in a Continuously Tested Public Water Supply . EPI-Insight , 5 ( 10 ) : 1 http://www.ndsc.ie/EPIInsight/Volume52004/File,906,en.pdf Health Protection Surveillance Centre, Dublin, Ireland. Available at
  • Ouyang , D , Bartholic , J and Selegean , J . 2005 . Assessing sediment loading from agricultural croplands in the Great Lakes basin . The J American Sci , 1 ( 2 ) : 14 – 21 .
  • Pandey , V K , Panda , S N and Sudhakar , S . 2005 . Modelling of an agricultural watershed using remote sensing and a geographic information system . Biosyst Eng , 90 ( 3 ) : 331 – 47 .
  • Panhorst , K A . 2002 . Estimating Bacterial Loadings to surface waters from agricultural watersheds , M.S. dissertation Blacksburg, VA, , USA : Biological Systems Engineering, Faculty of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University .
  • Parker , P , Letcher , R Jakeman , A . 2002 . Progress in integrated assessment and modelling . Envir Mod and Soft , 17 : 209 – 17 .
  • Paul , S , Matlock , M Haan , P . 2002 . Uncertainty Analysis as a First Step of Developing a Risk-Based Approach to Non Point Source Modelling of Fecal Coliform Pollution for Total Maximum Daily Load Estimates Available at http://twri.tamu.edu/reports/2002/2002-014/2002-014.pdf
  • Payment , P and Franco , E . 1993 . Clostridium perfringens and somatic coliphages as indicators of the efficiency of drinking water treatment for viruses and protozoan cysts . Appl Environ Microbiol , 59 : 2418 – 2 .
  • Pullar , D and Springer , D . 2000 . Towards integrating GIS and catchment models . Enviro Mod & Soft , 15 : 451 – 9 .
  • Reynolds , K A . 2004 . Groundwater Vulnerability to Microbial Contamination Available at http://www.wcponline.com/PDF/1204%20On%20Tap.pdf
  • Robertson , L J , Forberg , T Hermansen , L . 2005 . Cryptosporidium parvum infections in Bergen, Norway, during an extensive outbreak of waterborne giardiasis in autumn and winter 2004 . Appl Environ Microbiol , 72 ( 3 ) : 2218 – 20 .
  • Romanowicz , A A , Vanclooster , M Rounsevell , M . 2005 . Sensitivity of the SWAT model to the soil and land use data parametrisation: A case study in the Thyle catchment, Belgium . Ecolog Mod , 187 : 27 – 39 .
  • Rose , J B . 1997 . Environmental ecology of Cryptosporidium and public health implications . Annu Rev Public Health , 18 : 135 – 6 .
  • Rose , J B , Huffman , D E and Gennacaro , A . 2002 . Risk and control of waterborne cryptosporidiosis . Microbiol Rev , 26 : 113 – 2 .
  • Rosen , B H . 2000 . Waterborne Pathogens in Agricultural Watersheds (NRAES-147). Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service (NRAES) Cooperative Extension, US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and Watershed Science Institute, Ithaca, NY, USA
  • Ross , M A , Tara , P D Geurink , J S . 1997 . FIPR Hydrologic Model: Users Manual and Technical Documentation Prepared for Florida Institute of Phosphate Research, Bartow, FL, USA and Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, FL, USA, by University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
  • Sadeghi , A and Arnold , J G . 1998 . “ A SWAT/microbial submodel for predicting pathogen loadings in surface and groundwater at watershed and basin scales ” . In Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Environmental Regulations 56 – 63 . Proceedings of the ConferenceFort Worth, TX, USA. March 11–13
  • Sartory , D . 2003 . http://forum.europa.eu.int/Public/irc/jrc/jrc_emag/library?l=/clostridiumsperfringens/emagsclostridiumsperfrin/_EN_1.0_&a=d Clostridium perfringens as a Drinking Water Quality Parameter. A summary review prepared by on behalf of the European Microbiology Advisory Group (EMAG) for the Article 12 Technical Committee as a contribution to the rolling revision of the Drinking Water Directive 1998. Available at
  • Schneiderman , E M , Pierson , D C Lounsbury , D G . 2002 . Modeling the hydrochemistry of the Cannonsville Watershed with Generalized Watershed Loading Functions (GWLF) . J Am Water Resour Assoc , 38 : 1323 – 47 .
  • Scottish Executive . 2003 . The Cryptosporidium (Scottish Water) Directions 2003 Available at http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/26487/0013541.pdf
  • Shirmohammadi , A and Knisel , W G . 1994 . Evaluation of the GLEAMS model for pesticide leaching in Sweden . J Enviro Sci Health , 29 ( 6 ) : 1167 – 82 .
  • Shoemaker , L , Dai , T and Koenig , J . 2005 . TMDL model evaluation and research needs Available at http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs/600r05149/600r05149.pdf
  • Sophocleous , M A and Perkins , S P . 2000 . Methodology and application of combined watershed and ground-water models in Kansas . J Hydrol , 216 : 185 – 20 .
  • South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control . 2003 . Total Maximum Daily Load Development for Twelve Mile Creek Watershed, SC Available at http://www.scdhec.net/water/pubs/tmdl_12mi03.doc
  • Sperber , W H . 2001 . Hazard identification: From a quantitative to a qualitative approach . Food Cont , 12 ( 4 ) : 223 – 8 .
  • Swaney , D P , Sherman , D and Howarth , R W . 1996 . Modeling water, sediment, and organic carbon discharges in the Hudson-Mohawk Basin: Coupling to terrestrial sources . Estuaries , 19 : 833 – 4 .
  • Swerdlow , D L , Woodruff , B A Brady , R C . 1992 . A waterborne outbreak in Missouri of Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated with bloody diarrhea and death . Ann Intern Med , 117 : 812 – 9 .
  • Szewzyk , U , Szewzyk , R Manz , W . 2000 . Microbiological safety of drinking water . Annu Rev Microbiol , 54 : 81 – 127 .
  • Taft , B and Koncelik , J P . 2005 . Total Maximum Daily Loads for the Little Beaver Creek Watershed Available at http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dsw/tmdl/Little%20Beaver_final.pdf
  • Tetra Tech, Inc., US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) . 2002 . The Loading Simulation Program in C++ (LSPC) Watershed Modeling System—Users' Manual Pasadena, CA, , USA
  • Teunis , P FM and Havelaar , A H . 2002 . Risk assessment for protozoan parasites . Int Biodeterioration and Biodegradation , 50 : 185 – 9 .
  • Thompson , R C and Monis , P T . 2004 . Variation in Giardia: Implications for taxonomy and epidemiology . Adv Parasitol , 58 : 69 – 13 .
  • Tian , Y T , Gong , P Radke , J D . 2002 . Spatial and temporal modeling of microbial contaminants on grazing farmlands . J Envir Qual , 31 : 860 – 9 .
  • Tong , S TY and Chen , W L . 2002 . Modeling the relationship between land use and surface water quality . J Environ Manag , 66 : 377 – 9 .
  • Tsihrintzis , V , Fuentes , H and Gadipudi , R . 1994 . “ Interfacing GIS and water quality models for agricultural areas ” . In Hydraulic Engineering 1994 Edited by: Cotroneo , G and Rumer , R . 252 – 6 . ASCE, 1
  • Tsihrintzis , V , Fuentes , H and Gadipudi , R . 1995 . Modeling prevention alternatives for nonpoint source pollution at a wellfield in Florida . Water Res Bulletin , 32 ( 2 ) : 317 – 31 .
  • Tsihrintzis , V A , Fuentes , H R and Gadipudi , R . 1996 . Modeling prevention alternatives for nonpoint source pollution at a wellfield in Florida . J Am Wat Res Ass (AWRA). , 32 ( 2 ) : 317 – 31 .
  • USEPA . 1999 . Protocol for Developing Nutrient TMDLs , Washington DC, , USA : Office of Water . EPA 841-B-99-007
  • Usländer , T . 2005 . Trends of environmental information systems in the context of the European Water Framework Directive . Envir Mod and Soft , 20 : 1532 – 4 .
  • Van Asperen , I A , Mank , T Medema , G J . 1996 . An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in the Netherlands . Euro Surveill , 1 ( 2 ) : 11 – 2 . 1996
  • Vose , D . 2001 . Risk Analysis, , 2nd ed. , New York, NY, , USA : Wiley and Sons Ltd .
  • Walker , F R Jr and Stedinger , J R . 1999 . Fate and transport model of Cryptosporidium . J Envir Eng , 125 ( 4 ) : 325 – 33 .
  • Walker , S E , Mostaghimi , S Dillaha , T A . 1990 . Modeling animal waste management practices: Impacts on bacteria levels in runoff from agricultural lands . Trans of the ASAE , 33 ( 3 ) : 807 – 17 .
  • Warrington , P . 2001 . Aquatic pathogens, introduction http://www.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/reference/introduction.html Available at
  • WFD Ireland (Water Framework Directive Ireland) . 2006 . The European Water Framework directive Available at http://www.wfdireland.ie/
  • WHO (World Health Organisation) . 2001 . “ Endemic and epidemic infectious intestinal disease and its relationship to drinking water ” . In Water quality–Guidelines, standards and health: Assessment of risk and risk management for water-related infectious disease , Edited by: Fewtrell , L and Bartram , J . 61 – 88 . London, UK : IWA Publishing .
  • Yagow , G , Dillaha , T Mostaghimi , S . TMDL modeling of fecal coliform bacteria with HSPF . Presented at the 2001 Annual International Meeting of the ASAE . St. Joseph, MI, , USA : ASAE . Paper No. 01-2066
  • Young , R A , Onstad , C A Bosch , D D . 1989 . AGNPS: A nonpoint-source pollution model for evaluating agricultural watersheds . J Soil and Wat Conserv , 44 ( 2 ) : 168 – 73 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.