257
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Review: Risk assessment implications of variation in susceptibility to perchloroethylene due to genetic diversity, ethnicity, age, gender, diet and pharmaceuticals

, &
Pages 1466-1492 | Received 08 Mar 2017, Accepted 28 Apr 2017, Published online: 11 Jul 2017

References

  • ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2014. Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene (TCE). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, Georgia. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/TP.asp?id=173&tid=30
  • ATSDR. 2015. Tetrachloroethylene Toxicity: Toxicological Profile for Tetrachloroethylene (PERC). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, Georgia Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp.asp?id=265&tid=48
  • Barshteyn N and Elfarra AA. 2009. Globin monoadducts and cross-links provide evidence for the presence of S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine sulfoxide, chlorothioketene, and 2-chlorothionoacetyl chloride in the circulation in rats administered S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine. Chem Res Toxicol 22 (9):1629–38
  • Bhatnagar V, Xu G, Hamilton BA, et al. 2006. Analyses of 5′ regulatory region polymorphisms in human SLC22A6 (OAT1) and SLC22A8 (OAT3). J Hum Genet 51 (6):575–80
  • Bhattacharya RK and Schultze MO. 1972. Properties of DNA treated with S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine and a lyase. Arch Biochem Biophys 153 (1):105–15
  • Birner G, Vamvakas S, Dekant W, et al. 1993. Nephrotoxic and genotoxic N-acetyl-S-dichlorovinyl-L-cysteine is a urinary metabolite after occupational 1,1,2-trichloroethene exposure in humans: Implications for the risk of trichloroethene exposure. Environ Health Perspect 99:281–4
  • Boldenow E, Hassan I, Chames MC, et al. 2015. The trichloroethylene metabolite S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine but not trichloroacetate inhibits pathogen-stimulated TNF-alpha in human extraplacental membranes in vitro. Reprod Toxicol 52:1–6
  • Bradford BU, Lock EF, Kosyk O, et al. 2011. Interstrain differences in the liver effects of trichloroethylene in a multistrain panel of inbred mice. Toxicol Sci 120 (1):206–17
  • Bruning T, Lammert M, Kempkes M, et al. 1997. Influence of polymorphisms of GSTM1 and GSTT1 for risk of renal cell cancer in workers with long-term high occupational exposure to trichloroethene. Arch Toxicol 71 (9):596–9
  • Buzio L, De Palma G, Mozzoni P, et al. 2003. Glutathione S-transferases M1–1 and T1–1 as risk modifiers for renal cell cancer associated with occupational exposure to chemicals. Occup Environ Med 60 (10):789–93
  • Cabrera-Abreu JC and Green A. 2002. Gamma-glutamyltransferase: Value of its measurement in paediatrics. Ann Clin Biochem 39 (Pt 1):22–5
  • Cashman JR and Zhang J. 2002. Interindividual differences of human flavin-containing monooxygenase 3: Genetic polymorphisms and functional variation. Drug Metab Dispos 30 (10):1043–52
  • Chan GJ, Lee AC, Baqui AH, et al. 2013. Risk of early-onset neonatal infection with maternal infection or colonization: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 10 (8):e1001502
  • Chirila DN, Balacescu O, Popp R, et al. 2014. GSTM1, GSTT1 and GSTP1 in patients with multiple breast cancers and breast cancer in association with another type of cancer. Chirurgia (Bucur) 109 (5):626–33
  • Chiu WA and Ginsberg GL. 2011. Development and evaluation of a harmonized physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for perchloroethylene toxicokinetics in mice, rats, and humans. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 253 (3):203–34
  • Chiu WA, Campbell JL, Jr., Clewell HJ, 3rd, et al. 2014. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling of interstrain variability in trichloroethylene metabolism in the mouse. Environ Health Perspect 122 (5):456–63
  • Cho SG, Lee YH, Park HS, et al. 2001. Glutathione S-transferase mu modulates the stress-activated signals by suppressing apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1. J Biol Chem 276 (16):12749–55
  • Churchill GA, Airey DC, Allayee H, et al. 2004. The Collaborative Cross, a community resource for the genetic analysis of complex traits. Nat Genet 36 (11):1133–7
  • Cichocki JA, Furuya S, Chappell G, et al. 2016. Inter-individual variability in the relationship between toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of tetrachloroethylene. 2016 Annual Meeting of the Society of Toxicology. New Orleans, March 2016
  • Cichocki JA, Guyton KZ, Guha N, et al. 2016. Target organ metabolism, toxicity, and mechanisms of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene: Key similarities, differences, and data gaps. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 359 (1):110–23
  • Cichocki JA, Furuya S, Venkatratnam A, et al. 2017. Characterization of variability in toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of tetrachloroethylene using the collaborative cross mouse population. Environ Health Perpsect 125(5):057006. Doi:10.1289/EHP788
  • Cooper AJ, Krasnikov BF, Okuno E, et al. 2003. L-alanine-glyoxylate aminotransferase II of rat kidney and liver mitochondria possesses cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyase activity: A contributing factor to the nephrotoxicity/hepatotoxicity of halogenated alkenes? Biochem J 376 (Pt 1):169–78
  • Costa AK and Ivanetich KM. 1980. Tetrachloroethylene metabolism by the hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 system. Biochem Pharmacol 29 (20):2863–9
  • Cram LF, Zapata MI, Toy EC, et al. 2002. Genitourinary infections and their association with preterm labor. Am Fam Physician 65 (2):241–8
  • Day KC, Plopper CG, and Fanucchi MV. 2006. Age-specific pulmonary cytochrome P-450 3A1 expression in postnatal and adult rats. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 291 (1):L75–83
  • de Wildt SN, Kearns GL, Leeder JS, et al. 1999. Cytochrome P450 3A: Ontogeny and drug disposition. Clin Pharmacokinet 37 (6):485–505
  • Dekant W, Vamvakas S, Berthold K, et al. 1986. Bacterial beta-lyase mediated cleavage and mutagenicity of cysteine conjugates derived from the nephrocarcinogenic alkenes trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene and hexachlorobutadiene. Chem Biol Interact 60 (1):31–45
  • Dorion S, Lambert H, and Landry J. 2002. Activation of the p38 signaling pathway by heat shock involves the dissociation of glutathione S-transferase Mu from Ask1. J Biol Chem 277 (34):30792–7
  • Dreessen B, Westphal G, Bunger J, et al. 2003. Mutagenicity of the glutathione and cysteine S-conjugates of the haloalkenes 1,1,2-trichloro-3,3,3-trifluoro-1-propene and trichlorofluoroethene in the Ames test in comparison with the tetrachloroethene-analogues. Mutat Res 539 (1–2):157–66
  • Elfarra AA and Krause RJ. 2007. S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine sulfoxide, a reactive metabolite of S-(1,2,2-Trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine formed in rat liver and kidney microsomes, is a potent nephrotoxicant. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 321 (3):1095–101
  • Esposito T, Varriale B, D'Angelo R, et al. 2014. Regulation of flavin-containing mono-oxygenase (Fmo3) gene expression by steroids in mice and humans. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig 20 (3):99–109
  • Fanucchi MV, Buckpitt AR, Murphy ME, et al. 2000. Development of phase II xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in differentiating murine clara cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 168 (3):253–67
  • Forand SP, Lewis-Michl EL, and Gomez MI. 2012. Adverse birth outcomes and maternal exposure to trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene through soil vapor intrusion in New York State. Environ Health Perspect 120 (4):616–21
  • Ginsberg G, Angle K, Guyton K, et al. 2011. Polymorphism in the DNA repair enzyme XRCC1: Utility of current database and implications for human health risk assessment. Mutat Res 727 (1–2):1–15
  • Goode EL, Ulrich CM, and Potter JD. 2002. Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes and associations with cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11 (12):1513–30
  • Goodrich JM and Basu N. 2012. Variants of glutathione s-transferase pi 1 exhibit differential enzymatic activity and inhibition by heavy metals. Toxicol In Vitro 26 (4):630–5
  • Green T, Odum J, Nash JA, et al. 1990. Perchloroethylene-induced rat kidney tumors: An investigation of the mechanisms involved and their relevance to humans. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 103 (1):77–89
  • Green T, Dow J, Ellis MK, et al. 1997. The role of glutathione conjugation in the development of kidney tumours in rats exposed to trichloroethylene. Chem Biol Interact 105 (2):99–117
  • Groves CE, Munoz L, Bahn A, et al. 2003. Interaction of cysteine conjugates with human and rabbit organic anion transporter 1. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304 (2):560–6
  • Gul Altuntas T and Kharasch ED. 2002. Biotransformation of L-cysteine S-conjugates and N-acetyl-L-cysteine S-conjugates of the sevoflurane degradation product fluoromethyl-2,2-difluoro-1-(trifluoromethyl)vinyl ether (compound A) in human kidney in vitro: Interindividual variability in N-acetylation, N-deacetylation, and beta-lyase-catalyzed metabolism. Drug Metab Dispos 30 (2):148–54
  • Guyton KZ, Hogan KA, Scott CS, et al. 2014. Human health effects of tetrachloroethylene: Key findings and scientific issues. Environ Health Perspect 122 (4):325–34
  • Hallier E, Schroder KR, Asmuth K, et al. 1994. Metabolism of dichloromethane (methylene chloride) to formaldehyde in human erythrocytes: Influence of polymorphism of glutathione transferase theta (GST T1–1). Arch Toxicol 68 (7):423–7
  • Hapmap. 2016. International Haplotype Mapping Project. Available at https://www.genome.gov/10001688/international-hapmap-project/
  • He HR, You HS, Sun JY, et al. 2014. Glutathione S-transferase gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to acute myeloid leukemia: Meta-analyses. Jpn J Clin Oncol 44 (11):1070–81
  • Hiltunen TP, Donner KM, Sarin AP, et al. 2015. Pharmacogenomics of hypertension: A genome-wide, placebo-controlled cross-over study, using four classes of antihypertensive drugs. J Am Heart Assoc 4 (1):e001521
  • Hissink EM, Bogaards JJ, Freidig AP, et al. 2002. The use of in vitro metabolic parameters and physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling to explore the risk assessment of trichloroethylene. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 11 (3–4):259–71
  • Huang W, Shi H, Hou Q, et al. 2015. GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms contribute to renal cell carcinoma risk: Evidence from an updated meta-analysis. Sci Rep 5:17971
  • Human Protein Atlas. 2016. The Human Protein Atlas, CCBL1. Human Protein Atlas. Available at http://www.proteinatlas.org/ENSG00000171097-CCBL1/tissue
  • IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). 2014. Trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and some other chlorinated agents/IARC working group on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France. Available at http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol106/mono106.pdf
  • Iorio A, Piacentini S, Polimanti R, et al. 2014. Functional variability of glutathione S-transferases in Basque populations. Am J Hum Biol 26 (3):361–6
  • Irving RM and Elfarra AA. 2013. Mutagenicity of the cysteine S-conjugate sulfoxides of trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene in the Ames test. Toxicology 306:157–61
  • Jaffe DR, Hassall CD, Gandolfi AJ, et al. 1985. Production of DNA single strand breaks in rabbit renal tissue after exposure to 1,2-dichlorovinylcysteine. Toxicology 35 (1):25–33
  • Johnsrud EK, Koukouritaki SB, Divakaran K, et al. 2003. Human hepatic CYP2E1 expression during development. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 307 (1):402–7
  • Josephy PD. 2010. Genetic variations in human glutathione transferase enzymes: Significance for pharmacology and toxicology. Hum Genomics Proteomics 2010:876940
  • Juhanson P, Kepp K, Org E, et al. 2008. N-acetyltransferase 8, a positional candidate for blood pressure and renal regulation: Resequencing, association and in silico study. BMC Med Genet 9:25
  • Kaiser Family Foundation. 2017. Population Distribution by Race/Ethnicity: Time Frame 2015. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Available at http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/distribution-by-raceethnicity/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel={%22colId%22:%22Location%22,%22sort%22:%22asc%22}
  • Karaca S, Karaca M, Cesuroglu T, et al. 2015. GSTM1, GSTP1, and GSTT1 genetic variability in Turkish and worldwide populations. Am J Hum Biol 27 (3):310–6
  • Karami S, Boffetta P, Rothman N, et al. 2008. Renal cell carcinoma, occupational pesticide exposure and modification by glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms. Carcinogenesis 29 (8):1567–71
  • Keshava C, McCanlies EC and Weston A. 2004. CYP3A4 polymorphisms-potential risk factors for breast and prostate cancer: A HuGE review. Am J Epidemiol 160 (9):825–41
  • Kim S, Collins LB, Boysen G, et al. 2009a. Liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry analysis method for simultaneous detection of trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)glutathione and S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine. Toxicology 262 (3):230–8
  • Kim S, Kim D, Pollack GM, et al. 2009b. Pharmacokinetic analysis of trichloroethylene metabolism in male B6C3F1 mice: Formation and disposition of trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)glutathione and S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 238 (1):90–9
  • Kottgen A, Pattaro C, Boger CA, et al. 2010. New loci associated with kidney function and chronic kidney disease. Nat Genet 42 (5):376–84
  • Lamba JK, Lin YS, Schuetz EG, et al. 2002. Genetic contribution to variable human CYP3A-mediated metabolism. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 54 (10):1271–94
  • Landi S. 2000. Mammalian class theta GST and differential susceptibility to carcinogens: A review. Mutat Res 463 (3):247–83
  • Lash LH, Qian W, Putt DA, et al. 1998a. Glutathione conjugation of perchloroethylene in rats and mice in vitro: Sex-, species-, and tissue-dependent differences. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 150 (1):49–57
  • Lash LH, Qian W, Putt DA, et al. 1998b. Glutathione conjugation of trichloroethylene in rats and mice: Sex-, species-, and tissue-dependent differences. Drug Metab Dispos 26 (1):12–9
  • Lash LH, Lipscomb JC, Putt DA, et al. 1999a. Glutathione conjugation of trichloroethylene in human liver and kidney: Kinetics and individual variation. Drug Metab Dispos 27 (3):351–9
  • Lash LH, Putt DA, Brashear WT, et al. 1999b. Identification of S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl) glutathione in the blood of human volunteers exposed to trichloroethylene. J Toxicol Environ Health A 56 (1):1–21
  • Lash LH and Parker JC. 2001. Hepatic and renal toxicities associated with perchloroethylene. Pharmacol Rev 53 (2):177–208
  • Lash LH, Putt DA, Huang P, et al. 2007. Modulation of hepatic and renal metabolism and toxicity of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene by alterations in status of cytochrome P450 and glutathione. Toxicology 235 (1–2):11–26
  • Lash LH, Chiu WA, Guyton KZ, et al. 2014. Trichloroethylene biotransformation and its role in mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and target organ toxicity. Mutat Res Rev Mutat Res 762:22–36
  • Lee KA, Kim SH, Woo HY, et al. 2001. Increased frequencies of glutathione S-transferase (GSTM1 and GSTT1) gene deletions in Korean patients with acquired aplastic anemia. Blood 98 (12):3483–5
  • Li J, Wan Y, Na S, et al. 2015. Sex-dependent regulation of hepatic CYP3A by growth hormone: Roles of HNF6, C/EBPalpha, and RXRalpha. Biochem Pharmacol 93 (1):92–103
  • Lii CK, Liu KL, Cheng YP, et al. 2010. Sulforaphane and alpha-lipoic acid upregulate the expression of the pi class of glutathione S-transferase through c-jun and Nrf2 activation. J Nutr 140 (5):885–92
  • Lock EA, Barth JL, Argraves SW, et al. 2006. Changes in gene expression in human renal proximal tubule cells exposed to low concentrations of S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine, a metabolite of trichloroethylene. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 216 (2):319–30
  • Lu H, Gunewardena S, Cui JY, et al. 2013. RNA-sequencing quantification of hepatic ontogeny and tissue distribution of mRNAs of phase II enzymes in mice. Drug Metab Dispos 41 (4):844–57
  • MassDEP (Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection) 2014. Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) Inhalation Unit Risk Value. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. Available at http://www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/massdep/toxics/sources/chemical-research-and-standards.html
  • McCarthy RI, Lock EA, and Hawksworth GM. 1994. Cytosolic C-S lyase activity in human kidney samples-relevance for the nephrotoxicity of halogenated alkenes in man. Toxicol Ind Health 10 (1–2):103–12
  • McIlwain CC, Townsend DM, and Tew KD. 2006. Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms: Cancer incidence and therapy. Oncogene 25 (11):1639–48
  • MDH (Minnesota Department of Health). 2014. Toxicity Summary for Tetrachloroethylene (PCE). Minnesota Department of Health. Available at http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/risk/guidance/air/tetrachloro.pdf
  • Miksys S, Lerman C, Shields PG, et al. 2003. Smoking, alcoholism and genetic polymorphisms alter CYP2B6 levels in human brain. Neuropharmacology 45 (1):122–32
  • Moniz C, Nicolaides KH, Keys D, et al. 1984. Gamma-glutamyl transferase activity in fetal serum, maternal serum, and amniotic fluid during gestation. J Clin Pathol 37 (6):700–3
  • Moore LE, Brennan P, Karami S, et al. 2007. Glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms, cruciferous vegetable intake and cancer risk in the Central and Eastern European Kidney Cancer Study. Carcinogenesis 28 (9):1960–4
  • Moore LE, Boffetta P, Karami S, et al. 2010. Occupational trichloroethylene exposure and renal carcinoma risk: Evidence of genetic susceptibility by reductive metabolism gene variants. Cancer Res 70 (16):6527–36
  • Mugford CA and Kedderis GL. 1998. Sex-dependent metabolism of xenobiotics. Drug Metab Rev 30 (3):441–98
  • Nachshon A, Abu-Toamih Atamni HJ, Steuerman Y, et al. 2016. Dissecting the effect of genetic variation on the hepatic expression of drug disposition genes across the collaborative cross mouse strains. Front Genet 7:17
  • Nagashima S, Shimizu M, Yano H, et al. 2009. Inter-individual variation in flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 in livers from Japanese: Correlation with hepatic transcription factors. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 24 (3):218–25
  • Nakajima T, Okino T, Okuyama S, et al. 1988. Ethanol-induced enhancement of trichloroethylene metabolism and hepatotoxicity: Difference from the effect of phenobarbital. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 94 (2):227–37
  • National Academies Institute of Medicine. 2015. Committee on the Review of Clinical Guidance for the Care of Health Conditions Identified by the Camp Lejeune Legislation Board on the Health of Select Populations. Review of VA Clinical Guidance for the Health Conditions Identified by the Camp Lejeune Legislation. The National Academies Press. Available at http://www.nap.edu/download/18991
  • NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) Gene ID. 2016. FMO3 Flavin Containing Monooxygenase 3 [Homo sapiens (human)]. NCBI Gene ID 2328. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2328/
  • NCBI Genome Viewer. 2016. KYAT1 Kynurenine Aminotransferase 1 [Homo sapiens (human)], Gene ID 883. Location 9q34.11 Cysteine Conjugate-beta Lyase 1 CCBL1. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=883
  • Nelson HH, Wiencke JK, Christiani DC, et al. 1995. Ethnic differences in the prevalence of the homozygous deleted genotype of glutathione S-transferase theta. Carcinogenesis 16 (5):1243–5
  • Newman D, Abuladze N, Scholz K, et al. 2007. Specificity of aminoacylase III-mediated deacetylation of mercapturic acids. Drug Metab Dispos 35 (1):43–50
  • NRC (National Research Council). 2009. Science and decisions: Advancing risk assessment. In: edited by National Research Council, Chapters 4 and 5. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
  • NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1986. NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) (CAS No. 127-18-4) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser 311:1–197
  • NTP. 2016. 14th Report on Carcinogens. National Toxicology Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Available at https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html
  • OEHHA (Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment). 2016a. Perchloroethylene inhalation cancer unit risk factor. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program. Technical support document for cancer potency factors. Appendix B, SRP Review Draft, Revised May 2016. Available at http://oehha.ca.gov/air/document-hot-spots/perchloroethylene-unit-risk-factor-srp-review-draft
  • OEHHA. 2016b. Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986. Chemicals Known to the State to Cause Cancer or Reproductive Toxicity. Available at http://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/chemicals/tetrachloroethylene-perchloroethylene
  • Ojajarvi A, Partanen T, Ahlbom A, et al. 2001. Risk of pancreatic cancer in workers exposed to chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents and related compounds: A meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 153 (9):841–50
  • Pahler A, Parker J, and Dekant W. 1999. Dose-dependent protein adduct formation in kidney, liver, and blood of rats and in human blood after perchloroethene inhalation. Toxicol Sci 48 (1):5–13
  • Pal A, Hu X, Zimniak P, et al. 2000. Catalytic efficiencies of allelic variants of human glutathione S-transferase Pi in the glutathione conjugation of alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehydes. Cancer Lett 154 (1):39–43
  • Penaloza CG, Estevez B, Han DM, et al. 2014. Sex-dependent regulation of cytochrome P450 family members Cyp1a1, Cyp2e1, and Cyp7b1 by methylation of DNA. FASEB J 28 (2):966–77
  • Peng L, Cui JY, Yoo B, et al. 2013. RNA-sequencing quantification of hepatic ontogeny of phase-I enzymes in mice. Drug Metab Dispos 41 (12):2175–86
  • Pinto N and Dolan ME. 2011. Clinically relevant genetic variations in drug metabolizing enzymes. Curr Drug Metab 12 (5):487–97
  • Polimanti R, Carboni C, Baesso I, et al. 2013. Genetic variability of glutathione S-transferase enzymes in human populations: Functional inter-ethnic differences in detoxification systems. Gene 512 (1):102–7
  • Polimanti R, Piacentini S, Iorio A, et al. 2015. Haplotype differences for copy number variants in the 22q11.23 region among human populations: A pigmentation-based model for selective pressure. Eur J Hum Genet 23 (1):116–23
  • Pramanik S, Devi S, Chowdhary S, et al. 2011. DNA repair gene polymorphisms at XRCC1, XRCC3, XPD, and OGG1 loci in Maharashtrian population of central India. Chemosphere 82 (7):941–6
  • Riedmaier AE, Nies AT, Schaeffeler E, et al. 2012. Organic anion transporters and their implication in pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Rev 64:421–449
  • Ripp SL, Overby LH, Philpot RM, et al. 1997. Oxidation of cysteine S-conjugates by rabbit liver microsomes and cDNA-expressed flavin-containing mono-oxygenases: Studies with S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine, S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine, S-allyl-L-cysteine, and S-benzyl-L-cysteine. Mol Pharmacol 51 (3):507–15
  • Rodriguez-Antona C, Jande M, Rane A, et al. 2005. Identification and phenotype characterization of two CYP3A haplotypes causing different enzymatic capacity in fetal livers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 77 (4):259–70
  • Rouhou MC, Rheault I, and Haddad S. 2013. Modulation of trichloroethylene in vitro metabolism by different drugs in rats. Toxicol In Vitro 27 (1):34–43
  • Rouhou MC, Charest-Tardif G, and Haddad S. 2015. In vivo effects of naproxen, salicylic acid, and valproic acid on the pharmacokinetics of trichloroethylene and metabolites in rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A 78 (11):671–84
  • Rusyn I, Chiu WA, Lash LH, et al. 2014. Trichloroethylene: Mechanistic, epidemiologic and other supporting evidence of carcinogenic hazard. Pharmacol Ther 141 (1):55–68
  • Scheuplein R, Charnley G, and Dourson M. 2002. Differential sensitivity of children and adults to chemical toxicity. I. Biological basis. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 35 (3):429–47
  • Srivastava DS, Mishra DK, Mandhani A, et al. 2005. Association of genetic polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase M1, T1, P1 and susceptibility to bladder cancer. Eur Urol 48 (2):339–44
  • Steinkellner H, Rabot S, Freywald C, et al. 2001. Effects of cruciferous vegetables and their constituents on drug metabolizing enzymes involved in the bioactivation of DNA-reactive dietary carcinogens. Mutat Res 480–481:285–97
  • Stevens JC. 2006. New perspectives on the impact of cytochrome P450 3A expression for pediatric pharmacology. Drug Discov Today 11 (9–10):440–5
  • Suhre K, Wallaschofski H, Raffler J, et al. 2011. A genome-wide association study of metabolic traits in human urine. Nat Genet 43 (6):565–9
  • The 1000 Genomes Project Consortium. 2015. A global reference for human genetic variation. Nature 526 (7/21/2016):68–74
  • Thier R, Wiebel FA, Hinkel A, et al. 1998. Species differences in the glutathione transferase GSTT1-1 activity towards the model substrates methyl chloride and dichloromethane in liver and kidney. Arch Toxicol 72 (10):622–9
  • Tsirulnikov K, Abuladze N, Koag MC, et al. 2010. Transport of N-acetyl-S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine, a metabolite of trichloroethylene, by mouse multidrug resistance associated protein 2 (Mrp2). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 244 (2):218–25
  • USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 2012. Toxicological Review of Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene). In Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). US Environmental Protection Agency. Available at https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/toxreviews/0106tr.pdf
  • Vallon V, Eraly SA, Wikoff WR, et al. 2008. Organic anion transporter 3 contributes to the regulation of blood pressure. J Am Soc Nephrol 19 (9):1732–40
  • Vamvakas S, Bittner D, and Koster U. 1993. Enhanced expression of the protooncogenes c-myc and c-fos in normal and malignant renal growth. Toxicol Lett 67 (1–3):161–72
  • van Herwaarden AE, Wagenaar E, van der Kruijssen CM, et al. 2007. Knockout of cytochrome P450 3A yields new mouse models for understanding xenobiotic metabolism. J Clin Invest 117 (11):3583–92
  • Veiga-da-Cunha M, Tyteca D, Stroobant V, et al. 2010. Molecular identification of NAT8 as the enzyme that acetylates cysteine S-conjugates to mercapturic acids. J Biol Chem 285 (24):18888–98
  • Volkel W, Friedewald M, Lederer E, et al. 1998. Biotransformation of perchloroethene: Dose-dependent excretion of trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, and N-acetyl-S-(trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine in rats and humans after inhalation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 153 (1):20–7
  • Wang LI, Giovannucci EL, Hunter D, et al. 2004. Dietary intake of cruciferous vegetables, glutathione S-transferase (GST) polymorphisms and lung cancer risk in a Caucasian population. Cancer Causes Control 15 (10):977–85
  • Werner M, Birner G, and Dekant W. 1996. Sulfoxidation of mercapturic acids derived from tri- and tetrachloroethene by cytochromes P450 3A: A bioactivation reaction in addition to deacetylation and cysteine conjugate beta-lyase mediated cleavage. Chem Res Toxicol 9 (1):41–9
  • Whitfield JB. 2001. Gamma glutamyl transferase. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 38 (4):263–355
  • Wickham S, Regan N, West MB, et al. 2013. Inhibition of human gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase: Development of more potent, physiologically relevant, uncompetitive inhibitors. Biochem J 450 (3):547–57
  • Wiebel FA, Dommermuth A, and Thier R. 1999. The hereditary transmission of the glutathione transferase hGSTT1-1 conjugator phenotype in a large family. Pharmacogenetics 9 (2):251–6
  • Wu K, Wang X, Xie Z, et al. 2013. Glutathione S-transferase P1 gene polymorphism and bladder cancer susceptibility: An updated analysis. Mol Biol Rep 40 (1):687–95
  • Yamada H, Ishii Y, Yamamoto M, et al. 2006. Induction of the hepatic cytochrome P450 2B subfamily by xenobiotics: Research history, evolutionary aspect, relation to tumorigenesis, and mechanism. Curr Drug Metab 7 (4):397–409
  • Yu B, Zheng Y, Alexander D, et al. 2014. Genetic determinants influencing human serum metabolome among African Americans. PLoS Genet 10 (3):e1004212
  • Zeise L, Bois FY, Chiu WA, et al. 2013. Addressing human variability in next-generation human health risk assessments of environmental chemicals. Environ Health Perspect 121 (1):23–31
  • Zhang H and Forman HJ. 2009. Redox regulation of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 41 (5):509–15
  • Zhi Y, Yu J, Liu Y, et al. 2012. Interaction between polymorphisms of DNA repair genes significantly modulated bladder cancer risk. Int J Med Sci 9 (6):498–505

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.