Teens’ Reactance to Anti-Smoking Public Service Announcements: How Norms Set the Stage

References

• Agaku, I. T., King, B. A., & Dube, S. R. (2014). Current cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2005-2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63, 29–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arpan, L., Rhodes, N., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R. (2007). Attitude accessibility. In D. Roskos-Ewoldsen & J. Monahan (Eds.), Social cognition and communication (pp. 351–376). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Beal, A. C., Ausiello, J., & Perrin, J. M. (2001). Social influences on health-risk behaviors among minority middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 474–480. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00194-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., & Steinberg, L. (2011). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Developmental Science, 14, F1–F10. doi:10.1111/desc.2011.14.issue-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, H. (2003). Communicating risk without creating unintended effects. American Journal of Health Studies, 18, 104–110.
   Google Scholar
• Cho, H., & Salmon, C. T. (2006). Fear appeals for individuals in different stages of change: Intended and unintended effects and implications on public health campaigns. Health Communication, 20, 91–99. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2001_9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72, 144–168. doi:10.1080/03637750500111815
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewoldsen, D. R., Rhodes, N., & Fazio, R. H. (2015). The MODE model and its implications for studying the media. Media Psychology, 18(3), 312–337. doi:10.1080/15213269.2014.937440
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrelly, M. C., Davis, K. C., Haviland, M. L., Messeri, P., & Healton, C. G. (2005). Evidence of a dose-response relationship between “truth” antismoking ads and youth smoking prevalence. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 425–431. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.049692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 75–109). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41, 625–635. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1995). Predicting young adults’ health risk behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 505–517. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.505
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good, A., & Abraham, C. (2007). Measuring defensive responses to threatening messages: A meta-analysis of measures. Health Psychology Review, 1, 208–229. doi:10.1080/17437190802280889
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kobus, K. (2003). Peers and adolescent smoking. Addiction, 98(s1), 37–55. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.98.s1.4.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaBrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., Neighbors, C., & Larimer, M. E. (2010). Whose opinion matters? The relationship between injunctive norms and alcohol consequences in college students. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 343–349. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapinski, M. K., & Rimal, R. N. (2005). An explication of social norms. Communication Theory, 15, 127–147. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2005.tb00329.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell, K. A. (2002). Friends: The role of peer influence across adolescent risk behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 267–277. doi:10.1023/A:1015493316865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahan, S., Witte, K., & Meyer, J. (1998). The perception of risk messages regarding electromagnetic fields: Extending the extended parallel process model to an unknown risk. Health Communication, 10, 247–259. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc1003_4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, C. H., Burgoon, M., Grandpre, J. R., & Alvaro, E. M. (2006). Identifying principal risk factors for the initiation of adolescent smoking behaviors: The significance of psychological reactance. Health Communication, 19(3), 241–252. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc1903_6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, S. E., Palmgreen, P., Stephenson, M. T., Hoyle, R. H., & Lorch, E. P. (2003). Associations between message features and subjective evaluations of the sensation value of antidrug public service announcements. Journal of Communication, 53, 512–526. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02605.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthusamy, N., Levine, T. R., & Weber, R. (2009). Scaring the already scared: Some problems with HIV/AIDS fear appeals in Namibia. Journal of Communication, 59(2), 317–344. doi:10.1111/jcom.2009.59.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nickerson, A. B., & Nagle, R. J. (2005). Parent and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 223–249. doi:10.1177/0272431604274174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederdeppe, J. D. (2005). Syntactic indeterminacy, perceived message sensation value-enhancing features, and the message processing in the context of anti-tobacco advertisements. Communication Monographs, 72, 324–344. doi:10.1080/03637750500206862
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins, H. W., & Berkowitz, A. D. (1986). Perceiving the community norms of alcohol use among students: Some research implications for campus alcohol education programming. International Journal of the Addictions, 21, 961–976. doi:10.3109/10826088609077249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quick, B. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2007). Further evidence that psychological reactance can be modeled as a combination of anger and negative cognitions. Communication Research, 34, 255–276. doi:10.1177/0093650207300427
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quick, B. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2008). Examining the role of trait reactance and sensation seeking on perceived threat, state reactance, and reactance restoration. Human Communication Research, 34, 448–476. doi:10.1111/hcre.2008.34.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rains, S. A. (2013). The nature of psychological reactance revisited: A meta-analytic review. Human Communication Research, 39, 47–73. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01443.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, N., & Ewoldsen, D. R. (2009). Attitude and norm accessibility and cigarette smoking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(10), 2355–2372. doi:10.1111/jasp.2009.39.issue-10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, N., Ewoldsen, D. R., Shen, L. J., Monahan, J. L., & Eno, C. (2014). The accessibility of family and peer norms in young adolescent risk behavior. Communication Research, 41, 3–26. doi:10.1177/0093650211429118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, N., Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Edison, A., & Bradford, M. B. (2008). Attitude and norm accessibility affect processing of antismoking messages. Health Psychology, 27, S224–S232. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.3(Suppl.).S224
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, N., Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Eno, C. A., & Monahan, J. L. (2009). The content of cigarette counter-advertising: Are perceived functions of smoking addressed? Journal of Health Communication, 14(7), 658–673. doi:10.1080/10810730903204262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, L., Monahan, J. L., Rhodes, N., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R. (2009). The impact of attitude accessibility and decision style on adolescents’ biased processing of anti-smoking PSAs. Communication Research, 36, 104–128. doi:10.1177/0093650208326466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons-Morton, B. G., & Farhat, T. (2010). Recent findings on peer group influences on adolescent smoking. Journal of Primary Prevention, 31, 191–208. doi:10.1007/s10935-010-0220-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00475.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 2(1), 55–87. doi:10.1891/194589501787383444
   Google Scholar
• Strang, N. M., Chein, J. M., & Steinberg, L. (2013). The value of the dual systems model of adolescent risk-taking. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 1–4. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00223
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2014). The health consequences of smoking—50 years of progress: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health.
   Google Scholar
• Vitória, P. D., Salgueiro, M. F., Silva, S. A., & de Vries, H. (2011). Social influence, intention to smoke, and adolescent smoking behaviour longitudinal relations. British Journal of Health Psychology, 16, 779–798. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2010.02014.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakefield, M., Terry-McElrath, Y., Emery, S., Saffer, H., Chaloupka, F. J., Szczypka, G., … Johnston, L. D. (2006). Effect of televised, tobacco company-funded smoking prevention advertising on youth smoking-related beliefs, intentions, and behavior. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 2154–2160. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.083352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329–349. doi:10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communication Monographs, 61, 113–134. doi:10.1080/03637759409376328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar