Co-Designing a Mobile-Based Game to Improve Misinformation Resistance and Vaccine Knowledge in Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda

References

• Baek, Y. M., & Wojcieszak, M. E. (2009). Don’t expect too much! Learning from late-night comedy and knowledge item difficulty. Communication Research, 36(6), 783–809. doi:10.1177/0093650209346805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banas, J. A., & Miller, G. (2013). Inducing resistance to conspiracy theory propaganda: Testing inoculation and metainoculation strategies. Human Communication Research, 39(2), 184–207. doi:10.1111/hcre.12000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., Berriche, M., Uenal, F., McClanahan, W. P., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Towards psychological herd immunity: Cross-cultural evidence for two prebunking interventions against COVID-19 misinformation. Big Data & Society, 8(1), 20539517211013868. doi:10.1177/20539517211013868
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, A. B., & Bode, L. (2017). Satire as a source for learning? The differential impact of news versus satire exposure on net neutrality knowledge gain. Information, Communication & Society, 21(4), 612–625. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2017.1301517
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, L., Bowers, C., Cannon-Bowers, J., & Gonzalez-Holland, E. (2016). Understanding the role of achievements in game-based learning. International Journal of Serious Games, 3(4), 47–56. doi:10.17083/ijsg.v3i4.114
   Google Scholar
• Bore, I. L. K., & Reid, G. (2014). Laughing in the face of climate change? Satire as a device for engaging audiences in public debate. Science Communication, 36(4), 454–478. doi:10.1177/1075547014534076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borum Chattoo, C., & Feldman, L. (2017). Storytelling for social change: Leveraging documentary and comedy for public engagement in global poverty. Journal of Communication, 67(5), 678–701. doi:10.1111/jcom.12318
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, P. R., & McKnight, J. (2015). Climate as comedy: The effects of satirical television news on climate change perceptions. Science Communication, 37(5), 635–657. doi:10.1177/1075547015597911
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broniatowski, D. A., Jamison, A. M., Qi, S., AlKulaib, L., Chen, T. … Dredze, M. (2018). Weaponized health communication: Twitter bots and Russian trolls amplify the vaccine debate. American Journal of Public Health, 108(10), 1378–1384. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao, X. (2008). Political comedy shows and knowledge about primary campaigns: The moderating effects of age and education. Mass Communication and Society, 11(1), 43–61. doi:10.1080/15205430701585028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chanely, S., Benjamin, P., & Mechae, P. (2021). Finding the Signal through the Noise: A landscape review and framework to enhance the effective use of digital social listening for Immunization demand generation. Health Enabled with Technical Guidance and Support from Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, UNICEF and WHO. https://www.gavi.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/Finding-the-Signal-Through-the-Noise.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chan, M. S., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2017). Debunking: A Meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological Science, 28(11), 1531–1546. doi:10.1177/0956797617714579
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, E., Leos, C., Kowitt, S. D., & Moracco, K. E. (2020). Enhancing community-based participatory research through human-centered design strategies. Health Promotion Practice, 21(1), 37–48. doi:10.1177/1524839919850557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chib, A., & Lin, S. H. (2018). Theoretical advancements in mHealth: A systematic review of mobile apps. Journal of Health Communication, 23(10–11), 909–955. doi:10.1080/10810730.2018.1544676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHOP. (2018). Logical fallacies and vaccines. Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia: Vaccine Education Center. https://vaccinemakers.org/sites/default/files/resources/18059-ST%20Logical%20Fallacies_volume2_WEB.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Compton, J. (2013). Inoculation theory. The Sage Handbook of Persuasion: Developments in Theory and Practice, 2, 220–237.
   Google Scholar
• Compton, J. (2018). Inoculation against/with political humor. In J. C. Baumgartner & A. B. Becker (Eds.), Political humor in a changing media landscape: A new generation of research (pp. 95–113). London: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J. (2020a). Cranky uncle vs. Climate change: How to understand and respond to climate science deniers. New York, NY: Citadel Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J. (2020b). Using humor and games to counter science misinformation. Skeptical Inquirer, 44(3).
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J. (2021). Deconstructing Climate Science Denial. In D. Holmes & L. M. Richardson (Eds.), Edward Elgar research handbook in communicating climate change. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. doi:10.4337/9781789900408.00014
   Google Scholar
• Cook, J., Ecker, U. K. H., Trecek-King, M., Schade, G., Jeffers-Tracy, K. … McDowell, J. (2022). The Cranky Uncle game—Combining humor and gamification to build student resilience against climate misinformation. Environmental Education Research, 29(4), 1–17. doi:10.1080/13504622.2022.2085671
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dash, S., Parray, A. A., De Freitas, L., Mithu, M. I. H., Rahman, M. M., Ramasamy, A., & Pandya, A. K. (2021). Combating the COVID-19 infodemic: A three-level approach for low and middle-income countries. BMJ Global Health, 6(1), e004671. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004671
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diethelm, P., & McKee, M. (2009). Denialism: What is it and how should scientists respond? The European Journal of Public Health, 19(1), 2–4. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckn139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dormann, C., & Biddle, R. (2009). A review of humor for computer games: Play, laugh and more. Simulation & Gaming, 40(6), 802–824. doi:10.1177/1046878109341390
   Google Scholar
• Dormann, C., & Boutet, M. (2013, August). Incongruous Avatars and Hilarious Sidekicks: Design Patterns for Comical Game Characters. In DiGRA Conference: DeFragging Game Studies, Atlanta, USA, August 26-29.
   Google Scholar
• Ecker, U. K. H. (2017). Why rebuttals may not work: The psychology of misinformation. Media Asia, 44(2), 79–87. doi:10.1080/01296612.2017.1384145
   Google Scholar
• Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K. … Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
   Google Scholar
• Ellingson, M. K., Omer, S. B., Sevdalis, N., Thomson, A., & Wagner, A. L. (2023). Validation of the Vaccination Trust Indicator (VTI) in a multi-country survey of adult vaccination attitudes. PLoS Global Public Health, 3(4), e0001820. doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0001820
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fasce, A., Schmid, P., Holford, D. L., & Lewandowsky, S. (2021). Taxonomy of fallacious arguments against vaccination. Available at https://jitsuvax.info/
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, L., & Borum Chattoo, C. (2019). Comedy as a route to social change: The effects of satire and news on persuasion about Syrian refugees. Mass Communication and Society, 22(3), 277–300. doi:10.1080/15205436.2018.1545035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girard, C., Ecalle, J., & Magnan, A. (2013). Serious games as new educational tools: How effective are they? A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(3), 207–219. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2012.00489.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoofnagle, M. (2007, April 30). Hello Scienceblogs. Denialism Blog. http://scienceblogs.com/denialism/about/
   Google Scholar
• Howard, J., & Reiss, D. R. (2018). The anti-vaccine movement: A litany of fallacy and errors. In A. B. Kaufman & J. C. Kaufman (Eds.), Pseudoscience the conspiracy against science (pp. 195–219). The MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Imbellone, A., Botte, B., & Medaglia, C. (2015). Serious games for mobile devices: The InTouch project case study. International Journal of Serious Games, 2(1). doi:10.17083/ijsg.v2i1.41
   Google Scholar
• Ivanov, B., Parker, K. A., & Dillingham, L. (2020). Inoculation theory as a strategic tool. In H. D. O’Hair & M. J. O’Hair (Eds.), Handbook of Applied Communication Research (Vol. 1, pp. 13–28). Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, T., Das, S., & Tyler, N. (2021). Design for health: Human-centered design looks to the future. Global Health Science and Practice, 9(Supplement 2), S190–S194. doi:10.9745/GHSP-D-21-00608
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Juthe, A. (2009). Refutation by parallel argument. Argumentation, 23(2), 133. doi:10.1007/s10503-008-9109-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
   Google Scholar
• Kata, A. (2012). Anti-vaccine activists, Web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm–An overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine, 30(25), 3778–3789. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.11.112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S. C., Vraga, E. K., & Cook, J. (2020). An eye tracking approach to understanding misinformation and correction strategies on social media: The mediating role of attention and credibility to reduce HPV vaccine misperceptions. Health Communication, 36(13), 1–10. doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1787933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laning, T. (2019). What are serious games? https://grendelgames.com/what-are-serious-games/
   Google Scholar
• Larson, H. J., & Broniatowski, D. A. (2021). Why debunking misinformation is not enough to change people’s minds about vaccines. American Journal of Public Health, 111(6), 1058–1060. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2021.306293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., & Watts, D. J. (2018). The science of fake news. Science: Advanced Materials and Devices, 359(6380), 1094–1096. doi:10.1126/science.aao2998
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Holford, D. L., Finn, A. … Vraga, E. K. (2021). The COVID-19 Vaccine Communication Handbook. A practical guide for improving vaccine communication and fighting misinformation. https://sks.to/c19vax
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 353–369. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. doi:10.1177/1529100612451018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 348–384. doi:10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., & Yesilada, M. (2021). Inoculating against the spread of Islamophobic and radical-Islamist disinformation. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(1), 57. doi:10.1186/s41235-021-00323-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lionbridge Games. (2020). Narrative game design for every AudienceHow localization drives global game success. https://games.lionbridge.com/blog/designing-winning-game-narrative-every-audience/
   Google Scholar
• Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K., & Larson, H. J. (2021). Measuring the impact of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on vaccination intent in the UK and USA. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(3), 337–348. doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald, N. E. (2015). Vaccine hesitancy: Definition, scope and determinants. Vaccine, 33(34), 4161–4164. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., & Ecker, U. K. (2021). Refuting spurious COVID-19 treatment claims reduces demand and misinformation sharing. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10(2), 248–258. doi:10.1037/h0101793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26(1), 24–34. doi:10.1086/267068
   Google Scholar
• Moran, M. B., Lucas, M., Everhart, K., Morgan, A., & Prickett, E. (2016). What makes anti-vaccine websites persuasive? A content analysis of techniques used by anti-vaccine websites to engender anti-vaccine sentiment. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 9(3), 151–163. doi:10.1080/17538068.2016.1235531
   Google Scholar
• Moyer-Gusé, E., Robinson, M. J., & Mcknight, J. (2018). The role of humor in messaging about the MMR vaccine. Journal of Health Communication, 23(6), 514–522. doi:10.1080/10810730.2018.1473533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L., Moyer-Gusé, E., & Byrne, S. (2007). All joking aside: A serious investigation into the persuasive effect of funny social issue messages. Communication Monographs, 74(1), 29–54. doi:10.1080/03637750701196896
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paynter, J., Luskin-Saxby, S., Keen, D., Fordyce, K., Frost, G. … Webster, A. A. (2019). Evaluation of a template for countering misinformation—Real-world autism treatment myth debunking. PLoS One, 14(1), e0210746. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0210746
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickles, K., Cvejic, E., Nickel, B., Copp, T., Bonner, C. … McCaffery, K. J. (2021). COVID-19 misinformation trends in Australia: Prospective longitudinal national survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(1), e23805. doi:10.2196/23805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, T. S., & Andrade, C. (2011). The MMR vaccine and autism: Sensation, refutation, retraction, and fraud. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 53(2), 95. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.82529
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. … Van Der Linden, S. (2020). Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. Royal Society Open Science, 7(10), 201199. doi:10.1098/rsos.201199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2018). The fake news game: Actively inoculating against the risk of misinformation. Journal of Risk Research, 22(5), 1–11. doi:10.1080/13669877.2018.1443491
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2019). Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. Palgrave Communications, 5(1), 12. doi:10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9
   Google Scholar
• Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Breaking Harmony Square: A game that “inoculates” against political misinformation. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(8).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmid, P., & Betsch, C. (2019). Effective strategies for rebutting science denialism in public discussions. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(9), 931–939. doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0632-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolle, L. B., Nalamasu, R., Pergolizzi, J. V., Varrassi, G., Magnusson, P., LeQuang, J., & Breve, F. (2020). Fact vs fallacy: The anti-vaccine discussion reloaded. Advances in Therapy, 37(11), 4481–4490. doi:10.1007/s12325-020-01502-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2021). A comparison of prebunking and debunking interventions for implied versus explicit misinformation. doi:10.31234/osf.io/48zqn
   Google Scholar
• Toschi, L., Davini, V., Pandolfini, E., & Sbardella, M. (2021). Generative Communication paradigm and the project ‘scientia Atque usus’(sAu): Community building strategies in health communication. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 14(4), 271–273. doi:10.1080/17538068.2021.1992989
   Google Scholar
• Turiho, A. K., Okello, E. S., Muhwezi, W. W., & Katahoire, A. R. (2017). Perceptions of human papillomavirus vaccination of adolescent schoolgirls in western Uganda and their implications for acceptability of HPV vaccination: A qualitative study. BMC Research Notes, 10(1), 1–16. doi:10.1186/s13104-017-2749-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Linden, S. (2021). Some recommendations for doing high-impact research in social psychological science. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 37–41. doi:10.1111/ajsp.12463
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008. doi:10.1002/gch2.201600008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C., & Cook, J. (2019). Testing logic-based and humor-based corrections for science, health, and political misinformation on social media. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 63(3), 393–414. doi:10.1080/08838151.2019.1653102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C., Cook, J., & Bode, L. (2020). Testing the effectiveness of correction placement and type on Instagram. The International Journal of Press/politics, 25(4), 632–652. doi:10.1177/1940161220919082
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wawrzuta, D., Jaworski, M., Gotlib, J., & Panczyk, M. (2021). What arguments against COVID-19 vaccines run on Facebook in Poland: Content analysis of comments. Vaccines, 9(5), 481. doi:10.3390/vaccines9050481
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xenos, M. A., & Becker, A. B. (2009). Moments of Zen: Effects of the daily show on information seeking and political learning. Political Communication, 26(3), 317–332. doi:10.1080/10584600903053569
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeo, S. K., & McKasy, M. (2021). Emotion and humor as misinformation antidotes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(15). doi:10.1073/pnas.2002484118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, C., Occa, A., Kim, S., & Morgan, S. (2020). A meta-analysis of narrative game-based interventions for promoting healthy behaviors. Journal of Health Communication, 25(1), 54–65. doi:10.1080/10810730.2019.1701586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, R. K., Wolfe, R. M., Fox, D. E., Fox, J. R., Nowalk, M. P., Troy, J. A., & Sharp, L. K. (2005). Vaccine criticism on the world wide web. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 7(2), e369. doi:10.2196/jmir.7.2.e17
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar