C RITICAL I NCIDENT S TRESS M ANAGEMENT (CISM): B ENEFIT OR R ISK FOR E MERGENCY S ERVICES ?

References

• Mitchell JT. When disaster strikes . . . the critical incident debriefing process. J Emerg Med Serv. 1983;8:36–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dyregrov A. The process of psychological debriefing. J Traumatic Stress. 1997;10:589–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fullerton CS, Ursano RJ, Vance K, Lemming W. Debriefing fol-lowing trauma. Psychiatr Q. 2000;71:259–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell JT, Bray GP. Emergency Services Stress: Guidelines for Preserving the Health and Careers of Emergency Services Personnel. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Brady/Prentice Hall, 1990.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson RC, Mitchell JT. Evaluation of psychological debrief-ings. J Traumatic Stress. 1993;6:367–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everly GS, Flannery RB, Mitchell JT. Critical incident stress management (CISM): a review of the literature. Aggress Violent Behav. 2000;5:23–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell JT, Everly GS. Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: An Operations Manual for CISD, Defusing and Other Group Crisis Interventions, Third Edition. Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Everly GS, Mitchell JT. The debriefing "controversy" and crisis intervention: a review of lexical and substantive issues. Int J Emerg Mental Health. 2000; 2:211–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Everly GS, Mitchell JT. Critical Incident Stress Management-CISM-A New Era and Standard of Care in Crisis Intervention, Second Edition. Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Bisson JL, Deahl MP. Psychological debriefing and prevention of post-traumatic stress: more research is needed. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;165:717–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raphael B, Meldrum L, McFarlane AC. Does debriefing after psychological trauma work? Br Med J. 1995;310:1479–81.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• van Emmerik AAP, Kamphuis JH, Hulsbosch AM, Emmelkamp PMG. Single-session debriefing after psychological trauma: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2002;360:766–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose R, Bisson J, Wessley S. Psychological debriefing for pre-venting post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library. 2002;4.
   Google Scholar
• Everly GS, Flannery RB, Eyler VA. Critical incident stress man-agement (CISM): a statistical review of the literature. Psychiatr Q. 2002;73:171–82.
   Google Scholar
• Flannery RB, Hanson MA, Penk WE, Goldfinger S, Pastva GJ, Navon MA. Replicated declines in assault rates after imple-mentation of the Assaulted Action Plan. Psychiatr Serv. 1998; 49: 241–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flannery RB, Hanson MA, Penk W, Flannery CJ, Gallagher C. The Assaulted Staff Action Program: an approach to coping with the aftermath of violence in the workplace. In: Murphy L, Hurrell R, Sauter S, Keita G (eds). Job Stress Intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1995, pp 189–212.
   Google Scholar
• Flannery RB, Penk W, Corrigan M. Assaulted Staff Action Program (ASAP) and declines in the prevalence of assaults: community-based replication. Int J Emerg Mental Health. 1999; 1:19–22.
   Google Scholar
• Flannery RB, Anderson E, Marks L, Uzoma L. The Assaulted Staff Action Program and declines in the rates of assaults: mixed replicated findings. Psychiatr Q. 2000; 71:165–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busuttil W, Turnbull GJ, Neal LA, et al. Incorporating psycho-logical debriefing techniques with a brief group psychotherapy programme for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;167:495–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell JT, Schiller G, Eyler VA, Everly GS. Community crisis intervention: the Coldenham tragedy revisited. Int J Emerg Mental Health. 1999;1:227–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Everly GS, Boyle SH. Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD): a meta-analysis. Int J Emerg Mental Health. 1999;3:165–8.
   Google Scholar
• Harris MB, Stacks JS. A three-year five state study on the rela-tionships between critical incident stress debriefings, firefight-ers' disposition, and stress reactions. USFA-FEMA CISM Research Project. Commerce, TX: Texas A&M University-Commerce, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Harris MB, Baloglu M, Stacks JR. Mental health of trauma-exposed firefighters and critical incident stress debriefing. J Loss Trauma. 2002;7:223–38.
   Google Scholar
• Hobbs M, Mayou R, Harrelson B, Worlock P. A randomized con-trolled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traf-fic accidents. Br Med J. 1996;313:1438–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayou RA, Ehlers A, Hobbs M. Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims: three-year follow-up of a random-ized controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2000;176:589–93.
   Google Scholar
• Rose S, Brewin CR, Andrews B, Lirk M. A randomized con-trolled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychol Med. 1999;29:793–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson JI, Jenkins PL, Alexander J, Bannister C. Randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of acute burn trauma. Br J Psychiatry.1997;171:78–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlier IVE, Voerman AE, Gersons BPR. The influence of occu-pational debriefing on post-traumatic stress symptomatology in traumatized police officers. Br J Med Psychol. 2000;73:87–98.
   Google Scholar
• Carlier IVE, Lamberts RD, van Ulchelen AJ, Gersons BPR. Disaster-related post-traumatic stress in police officers: a field study of the impact of debriefing. Stress Med. 1998;14:143–8.
   Google Scholar
• Macnab AJ, Russel JA, Lowe JP, Gagnon F. Critical incident stress intervention after loss of an air ambulance: two-year fol-low-up. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1999;14(1):8–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Horowitz MJ, VVilner N, Alvarez W. The Impact of Event Scale: a measure of subjective stress. Psychosom Med. 1979;41:209–18.
   Google Scholar
• Deahl MP, Gillham AB, Thomas, J et al. Psychological sequelae following the Gulf War: factors associated with subsequent morbidity and the effectiveness of psychological debriefing. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;165:60–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hytten K, Hasle A. Fire fighters: a study of stress and coping. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;80:50–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir M, Weil G, Kaplan Z, Tocker T, VVitzum E. Debriefing with brief group psychotherapy in a homogenous group of non-injured victims of a terrorist attack: a prospective study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1998;98:237–4.
   Google Scholar
• Greenburg N. A critical review of psychological debriefing: the management of psychological health after traumatic experi-ences. J R Nay Med Serv. 2001;87:158–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arendt A, Elklit A. Effectiveness of psychological debriefing. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2001;104:423–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell JT, Everly GS. The scientific evidence for critical inci-dent stress management. J Emerg Med Serv.1997;22(1):86–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ostrow LS. Critical incident stress management: is it worth it? J Emerg Med Serv. 1996;21(8):28–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• International Critical Incident Stress Foundation, Inc. Internal Revenue Service Form 990 (Return of Organization Exempt from Income Tax) 2000. Aavailable at: http: / /63.136.234.78/ 2000/521 / 676 /2000-521676953-1-9.pdf. Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Gist R, Lohr J, Kenardy J, et al. Researchers speak out on CISM. J Emerg Med Serv. 1997;22(5):27–8.
   Google Scholar
• Lohr JM, Fowler KA, Lilienfeld SO. The dissemination and pro-motion of pseudoscience in clinical psychology: the challenge to legitimate clinical science. Clin Psychol. 2002:55(3):4–10.
   Google Scholar
• Lipton H, Everly GS. Mental health needs for providers of emer-gency medical services for children (EMSC): a report of a con-sensus panel. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6:15–21.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fowler RD. The American Psychological Association meeting [letter]. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6:492.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Everly GS, Talley AL (eds). United States Department of Health and Human Services; Health Resources and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau; National Highway Safety Administration; American Psychological Association. Helping the EMS Professional: The Stress of Providing Emergency Medical Services for Children. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Personal communication. Jacqueline Hall Gentry, PhD, Ameri-can Psychological Association, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Health and Mass Violence: Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims /Survivors of Mass Violence. A Workshop to Reach Consensus on Best Practices. NIH Publication No. 02–5138, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002. Avail-able at: http: / /www.nimh.nih.gov /research/massviolence.pdf. Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Mental Health in Emergencies: Mental and Social Aspects of Health of Populations Exposed to Extreme Stressors. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003. Available at: http: / /www5.who.int/mental_health / download. cfm?id=0000000640. Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Parry G (Chair, Development Group). Treatment Choice in Psychological Therapies and Coun-selling. Department of Health, National Health Service, United Kingdom. Available at http: / / www. doh. gov.uk / mentalhealth / treatmentguid eline / treatment.pdf. Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)-Russia Advanced Research Workshop on Social and Psychological Consequences of Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Terrorism. Available at: http: / /www.nato.int/ science / e / 020325-arw2.htm). Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• New South Wales Health Department. Disaster Mental Health Response Handbook: An Educational Resource for Mental Health Professionals Involved in Disaster Management. NSW Health Department, Sydney, NSW, 2000. Available at http: / / www.nswiop.nsw.edu.au). Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Australasian Critical Incident Stress Association. Guidelines for Good Practice for Emergency Responder Groups in Relation to Early Intervention after Trauma and Critical Incidents (Glenelg Declaration), 1999. Available at http: / /www.ctsn-rcst.ca / glenelg.html. Accessed Feb 2003.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute of Mental Health. Facts about Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Bethesda, MD. Available at: http: / /www.nih. gov / anxiety /ptsdfacts.cfm). Accessed Nov 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Litz BT, Gray MJ, Bryant RA, Adler AB. Early intervention for trauma: current status and future directions. Clin Psychol Sci Pract. 2002;9:112–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar