Young African American Grandmothers: A Missed Developmental Stage

References

• Apfel , N. H. and Seitz , V. 1991 . Four models on adolescent mother-grandmother relationships in black inter-city families . Family Relations , 40 : 421 – 429 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atchley , R. 1960 . Social forces in later life , Belmont , CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Barry , E. M. September 1991 . “ Grandparent caretakers: The need for services and support ” . In State Bar Association, Newsletter September , 5 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Bengtson , V. L. , Rosenthal , C. and Burton , L. M. 1990 . “ Families and Aging ” . In Handbook on Aging and the Social Sciences , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Bengtson , R. and George , L. 263 – 287 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Besharov , D. and Zinmeister , B. 1986 . Unwed moms are white too Los Angeles Times. May 5
   Google Scholar
• Biddle , B. and Thomas , E. 1966 . Role theory: Concepts and research , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Biddle and Thomas , E. 1979 . Role theory: Concepts and research , Huntington , New York : Robert Krieger Publishing Co. .
   Google Scholar
• Blassingame , J. W. 1979 . The slave community , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Burton , L. M. 1985 . “ Early and on-time grandmotherhood in multigeneration black families: Issues of timing and meaning in roles ” . In Grandparents: Research and Policy Perspectives , Edited by: Bengtson , V. L. and Robertson , J. 61 – 67 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Burton , L. M. 1985 . Early and on-time grandmotherhood in multigeneration black families Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Southern California
   Google Scholar
• Burton , L. M. 1990 . Teenage childbearing as an alternative life course strategy in multigenerational black families . Human Nature , 1 ( 2 ) : 123 – 143 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burton , L. M. and Jarrett , R. L. Studying African American family strucure and process in underclass neighborhoods . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association; Cincinnati, OH .
   Google Scholar
• Burton , L. M. 1991 . The intergenerational family roles of aged black Americans . Marriage & Family Review , 16 ( 3/4 ) : 311 – 330 .
   Google Scholar
• Burton , L. M. and Sorensen , S. 1993 . “ Temporal context and the caregiver role: Perspectives from ethnographic studies of multigeneration African-American families ” . In Caregiving Systems, Formal and Informal Helpers , Edited by: Zarit , S. H. , Pearlin , L. I. and Schaie , K. W. 47 – 66 . Hillside , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Caldwell , C. 1991 . “ Institute for social research ” . In Research Center for Group Dynamics , University of Michigan : Ann Arbor .
   Google Scholar
• Cazenave , N. A. 1981 . “ Black men in America: The quest for “manhood” . In Black Families , Edited by: McAdoo , H. P. 176 – 185 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Chatters , L. M. , Taylor , R. J. and Jackson , J. S. 1985 . Size and composition of the informal helper network mobilized in response to serious personal problems . Journal of Marriage and the Family , 51 : 667 – 676 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherlin , A. and Furstenburg , F. 1986 . The new american grandparent , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Cohler , B. J. and Grunebaum , H. U. 1981 . Mothers, grandmothers, and daughters , New York : John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Coletta , N. D. , Hader , S. and Gregg , C. H. 1981 . How adolescents cope with the problems of early motherhood . Adolescence , 16 : 499 – 512 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coll , C. G. 1987 . The social context of teenage childbearing: Effects on the infant's caregiving environment . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 16 : 345 – 354 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooley , C. H. 1968 . “ The social self: On the meaning of “I” . In The self in social interaction , Edited by: Gordon , C. and Gergen , K. I. 87 – 91 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , E. Untitled presentation to Mimi White-House Conference on Grandparents Raising Grandchildren . March . College Park , MD : University College, University of Maryland .
   Google Scholar
• Downey , T. Untitled presentation to Mimi White-House conference on grandparents raising grandchildren . March . College Park , MD : University College, University of Maryland .
   Google Scholar
• Farley , R. and Allen , W. 1987 . The color line and the quality of life in America , New York : Russell Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Field , T. M. , Widmayer , S. M. , Stringer , S. and Ignatoff , E. 1980 . Teen age lower class black mothers and their preterm infants: An intervention developmental follow up . Child Development , 51 : 426 – 436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , C. D. and Gitelson , R. 1983 . A meta-analysis of the correlates of role conflict and role ambiguity . Journal of Applied Psychology , 68 : 320 – 333 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flaherty , M. J. , Facteau , L. and Garver , P. 1983 . “ Grandmothers function in multigenerational families: An exploration study of black adolescent mothers and their infants ” . In Maternal Child Nursing Journal 61 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Fox-Genovese , E. 1988 . Within the plantation household , North Carolina , Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1947 . The Negro family in the United States , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frazier , E. F. 1969 . On race relations , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Furstenberg , F. and Crawford , A. G. 1978 . Family Support: Helping teen age mothers to cope . Family Planning Perspective , 10 : 322 – 333 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Furstenberg , F. 1980 . Burdens and benefits: The effects of early childbearing on the family . Journal of Social Issues , 36 : 65 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genovese , E. D. 1974 . Roll Jordan Roll , New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Gibson , J. 1972 . Kin family network: Overheralded structure in past conceptualization of family functioning . Journal of Marriage and Family , 34 : 13 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goode , W. J. 1960 . A theory of role strain . American Sociological Review , 25 : 483
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gourdine , R. 1994 . “ Children having children ” . In Journal for Minority Medical Students 58 – 61 . Spring, 1994
   Google Scholar
• Gutman , H. G. 1976 . The black family in slavery and freedom 1750-1925 , New York : Vintage .
   Google Scholar
• Guttmacher Institute . 1981 . Teen age pregnancy: The problem that hasn't gone away , New York : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Hardy , M. D. and Conway , M. E. 1988 . Role theory , 2nd ed. , Norwalk, Conn. Appleton and Lange .
   Google Scholar
• Hayes , W. and Mindel , C. 1973 . Extended kinship relations in black and white families . Journal of Marriage and Families , 25 : 51 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes , C. C. , ed. 1987 . Risking the future , Vol. 1 , Washington , DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Henry , B. 1993 . Black grandmotherhood: As it relates to infants of adolescent mothers Ph.D. dissertation. Temple University
   Google Scholar
• Hill , R. 1972 . Strengths of Black families , New York : Emerson-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , J. 1970 . Kinship relations among urban blacks . Journal of Social Behavioral Sciences , 16 : 1 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , J. 1974 . “ Ordinary black husbands-fathers: The truly hidden men ” . In Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences. 20(2), 19-27
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , J. 1979 . “ Structural characteristics of norms ” . In Role Theory , Edited by: Biddle , B. and Thomas , E. New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs , J. 1990 . “ Black America, 1989: An overview ” . In The state of Black America , Edited by: Deward , J. New York : National Urban League .
   Google Scholar
• Jendrek , M. P. 1993 . Grandparents who parent their grandchildren: Effects of lifestyle . Journal of Marriage and Family , 55 August : 609 – 621 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , J. 1983 . Role conflict: cause of unrest or energizer? . Social Work , 38 ( 2 ) : 136 – 141 .
   Google Scholar
• Kahana , E. and Kahana , B. 1971 . Theoretical and research perspectives on grandparenthood . Aging and Human Development , 2 : 261 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan , E. B. 1996 . Black teenage mothers and their mothers: the impact of adolescent child bearing on daughters' relations with mothers . Social Problems , 43 Nov. : 427 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karenga , M. 1993 . Introduction to Black studies , Los Angeles , CA : The University of Sankore Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ladner , J. A. 1972 . Tomorrow's tomorrow , New York : Garden City .
   Google Scholar
• Ladner , J. A. and Gourdine , R. M. 1984 . Intergenerational teenage motherhood: Some preliminary findings . Sage: A scholarly Journal on Black Women , 1 ( 2 ) : 22 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Ladner , J. A. and Gourdine , R. M. 1992 . “ Adolescent pregnancy in the African American community ” . In Health Issues in the Black Community , Edited by: Braithwaite , R.I. and Taylor , S. E. California : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Lehr , U. 1984 . “ The role of the women in the family generation contest ” . In International Relationships , Edited by: Garms-Homolova , V. New York : C. J. Hogrefe .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , G. 1973 . Black women in White America , New York : Vintage Books .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , E. and Martin , D. 1978 . The Black extended family , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , E. and Martin , D. 1985 . The helping tradition in the black family and the community , Washington , DC : The National Association of Social Workers .
   Google Scholar
• Mead , G. H. 1934 . Mind, Self and Society , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. 1980 . “ Black mothers and the extended family support network ” . In The Black Woman , Edited by: Rodgers-Rose , L. F. 125 – 144 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , J. L. 1981a . “ Black families and child interactions ” . In Black Men , Edited by: Gary , L. E. 115 – 130 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• McAdoo , H. P. 1986 . Crisis in the family: Teen age pregnancy is not just a black problem . Youth Policy , 8 ( 3 ) : 29 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• McCluskey , K. A. , Killarney , J. and Popine , D. R. 1983 . “ Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood: Implications for development ” . In Life Span Development , Edited by: Callahan , E. J. and McCluskey , K. A. New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• McGahey , C. and Sporakowski , M. 1972 . Intergenerational attitudes toward childbearing and childrearing . Journal of Home Economics , 64 : 27 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Minkler , M. 1994 . Grandparents as parents: The American experience . Aging International , 21 March : 24 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Minkler , M. 1992 . The physical and emotional health of grandmothers raising grandchildren in the crack cocaine epidemic . The Gerontologist , 32 : 752 – 761 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minkler , M. , Driver , D. , Roe , K. and Bedeian , K. 1993 . Community interventions to support grandparent caregivers . The Gerontologist , 33 ( 6 ) : 807 – 811 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neugarten , B. L. 1970 . Dynamics of transition of Middle to old age: Adaptation in the life cycle . Journal of Geriatric Psychology , 4 : 71 – 87 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neugarten , B. L. 1979 . Time, age, and the life cycle . American Journal of Psychiatry , 136 ( 7 ) : 887 – 894 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neugarten , B. L. , Moore , J. W. and Lowe , J. 1965 . Age norms, age constraints, and adult socialization . American Journal of Sociology , 70 : 710 – 717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noles , V. and Jargvis , M. May 1992 . “ Don't call me grandma ” . In Essence May , Magazine
   Google Scholar
• O'Reilly , E. and Morrison , M. L. 1993 . Grandparent-headed families: New therapeutic challenges . Child Psychiatry and Human Development , 23 : 147 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson , J. 1990 . Black grandmothers in multigenerational households: Diversity in family structure and parenting involvement in the Woodlawn community . Child Development , 61 : 434 – 442 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinson-Millburn , N. M. 1965 . Grandparents raising grandchildren: Health status needs and implications for policy Unpublished report, University of Maryland, College Park, Center of Human Services Development
   Google Scholar
• Rinck , C. and Charnow , M. 1993 . Grandparent caregivers: A concept paper Unpublished manuscript, National Council on Aging. Washington, DC
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , J. 1977 . “ Grandmotherhood: A study of role conceptions ” . In Journal of Marriage and Family 165 – 173 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , C. 1994 . “ Role transitions of young grandmothers: A study ” . In Georgia Addiction Pregnancy Parenting Project , Atlanta : Emory University .
   Google Scholar
• The Roper Organization . 1993 . American Demographics , 15 ( 10 ) October : 63
   Google Scholar
• Rosow , I. 1974 . Socialization of Old Age , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schulman , J. and Pitt , B. 1982 . Second thoughts on joint custody arrangements: Analysis of legislation and its implications for women and children . Golden Gate University Law Review , 12 : 539 – 577 .
   Google Scholar
• Sprey , J. and Matthews , S. M. 1982 . Contemporary grandparents: A systematic transition . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences , 464 : 91 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stack , C. 1974 . All our kin: Strategies for survival in the Black community , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Stout , J. K. and Posner , J. I. 1984 . Stress, role ambiguity and role conflict . Psychological reports , 55 : 747 – 753 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troll , L. and Bengtson , V. L. 1979 . “ Generations in the family ” . In Contemporary Theories about the Family , Edited by: Burr , W. R. , Hill , R. , Nye , F. I. and Reiss , I. L. Vol. 1 , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , J. H. 1985 . The Structure of Sociological Theory , 3th ed. , Chicago : Dorsey .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , J. H. 1986 . The Structure of Sociological Theory , 4th ed. , Chicago : Dorsey .
   Google Scholar
• 1991 . United States Bureau of the Census , Washington , DC : U. S. Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• Van de Vliert , E. 1981 . “ A three-step theory of role conflict resolution ” . In Journal of Social Psychology, 113, 77-83
   Google Scholar
• Vinovskis , M. 1988 . An epidemic of adolescent pregnancy? Some historical and policy considerations , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• White , D. G. 1991 . “ Female slaves in the plantation south ” . In Before Freedom Came , Edited by: Edward , D. and Campbell , C. Jr. Richmond : the Museum of the Confederacy .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. 1986 . The Black extended family: An analytical consideration . Developmental Psychology , 22 : 246 – 258 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodworth , R. September 1994 . Grandparent-headed households and their grandchildren: A special report , September , Washington , DC : AARP Grandparent Information Center .
   Google Scholar