Negotiating Risk and Promoting Empowerment through Rap Music: Development of a Measure to Capture Risk and Empowerment Pathways to Change

REFERENCES

• Adams , T. M. and Fuller , D. B. 2006 . The words have changed but the ideology remains the same: Misogynistic lyrics in rap music . Journal of Black Studies , 36 ( 6 ) : 938 – 957 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altschul , I. , Oyserman , D. and Bybee , D. 2008 . Racial-ethnic self-schemas and segmented assimilation: Identity and the academic achievement of Hispanic youth . Social Psychology Quarterly , 71 ( 3 ) : 302 – 320 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barongan , C. and Nagayama-Hall , G. C. 1995 . The influence of misogynous rap music on sexual aggression against women . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 19 : 195 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolden , M. 2008 . Hip hop 102 . Psych Discourse , 42 ( 6 ) : 16 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowling , L. and Washington , P. 1999 . Rap music videos: The voices of organic intellectuals . Transcultural Music Review , : 4 Retrieved from http://www.sibetrans.com/trans/trans4/dee.htm
   Google Scholar
• Bradley , A. and DuBois , A. 2010 . The Anthology of Rap New Haven, CT : Yale University Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Chang , J. 2004 . Can't stop won't stop: A history of the hip-hop generation New York, NY : St. Martin's Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , M. , Miller , B. , Grube , J. and Waiters , E. 2006 . Music, substance use, and aggression . Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 67 ( 3 ) : 373 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon , T. L. and Brooks , T. 2002 . Rap music and rap audiences: Psychological effects and political resistance . African American Research Perspectives , 8 : 106 – 116 .
   Google Scholar
• Dixon , T. , Zhang , Y. and Conrad , K. 2009 . Self-esteem, misogyny and afrocentricity: An examination of the relationship between rap music consumption and African American perception . Group Processes Intergroup Relations , 12 ( 3 ) : 345 – 360 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elligan , D. 2004 . Rap therapy: A practical guide for communicating with young adults through rap music New York, NY : Kensington Publishing. .
   Google Scholar
• Fernandes , A. and Gabe , T. 2009 . Disconnected youth: A look at 16- to 24-year olds who are not working or in school Washington, DC : Congressional Research Service. .
   Google Scholar
• Flores-Gonzalez , N. , Rodriguez , M. and Rodriguez-Muniz , M. 2006 . “ From hip-hop to humanization: Batey Urbano as a space for Latino youth culture and community action. ” . In Beyond resistance: Youth activism and community change Edited by: Ginwright , S. , Noguera , P. and Cammarota , J. Oxford, , UK : Routledge. .
   Google Scholar
• Freire , P. 1990 . Pedagogy of the oppressed Edited by: Bergman Ramos , Myra . New York, NY : Continuum. .
   Google Scholar
• Geronimus , A. T. 2000 . To mitigate, resist, or undo: Addressing structural influences on the health of urban populations . American Journal of Public Health , 90 ( 6 ) : 867 – 872 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginwright , S. and James , T. 2002 . “ From assets to agents of change: Social justice, organizing, and youth development. ” . In Youth participation: Improving institutions and communities. New directions for youth development Edited by: Kirshner , B. and O'Donoghue , J. L. 27 – 46 . San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass. .
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez , T. and Hayes , B. 2009 . Rap music in school counseling based on Don Elligan's rap therapy . Journal of Creativity in Mental Health , 4 : 16 – 172 .
   Google Scholar
• Gutierrez , L. M. 1990 . Working with women of color: An empowerment perspective . Social Work , 35 : 149 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutierrez , L. 1995 . Understanding the empowerment process: Does consciousness make a difference? . Social Work Research , 19 ( 4 ) : 229 – 237 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hicks Harper , P. T. , Rhodes , W. A. , Thomas , D. E. , Leary , G. and Quinton , S. L. 2007 . Hip-hop development: Bridging the generational divide for youth development . Journal of Youth Development , 2 ( 2 ) : 2 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Iwamoto , D. K. , Creswell , J. and Caldwell , L. D. 2007 . Feeling the beat: The meaning of rap music for ethnically diverse Midwestern college students—a phenomenological study . Adolescence , 42 : 337 – 352 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keyes , C. 2002 . Rap music and street consciousness (music in American life) Chicago, IL : University of Illinois Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Kobin , C. and Tyson , E. 2006 . Thematic analysis of hip-hop music: Can hip-hop in therapy facilitate empathic connections when working with clients in urban settings? . The Arts in Psychotherapy , 33 : 343 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubrin , C. 2005 . Gangstas, thugs, and hustlas: Identity and the code of the street in rap music . Social Problems , 52 ( 3 ) : 360 – 378 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner , R. M. , Brentano , C. , Dowling , E. M. and Anderson , P. M. 2002 . Positive youth development: Thriving as the basis of personhood and civil society . New Directions for Youth Development , 95 ( Fall ) : 11 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Miranda , D. and Claes , M. 2004 . Rap music genres and deviant behaviors in French-Canadian adolescents . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 33 ( 2 ) : 113 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , T. 2002 . Global noise: Rap and hip-hop outside the USA Middletown, CT : Wesleyan University Press. .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council and Institute of Medicine . 2002 . Community programs to promote youth development Washington, DC : National Academy Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Newman , M. 2007 . “I don't want my ends to just meet, I want my ends overlappin’,”: Personal aspiration and the rejection of progressive rap . Journal of Language, Identity & Education , 6 ( 2 ) : 131 – 145 .
   Google Scholar
• Orange , C. 1996 . A source of undesirable vicarious empowerment for African American males . The High School Journal , 79 ( 4 ) : 281 – 292 .
   Google Scholar
• Rose , T. 2008 . The hip-hop wars: What we talk about when we talk about hip-hop Philadelphia, PA : Basic Books. .
   Google Scholar
• Roth , J. L. and Brooks-Gunn , J. 2003 . Youth development programs: Risk, prevention and policy . Journal of Adolescent Health , 32 ( 3 ) : 170 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skold , D. and Rehn , A. 2007 . Makin' it, by keeping it real: Street talk, rap music, and the forgotten entrepreneurship from “the 'hood.” . Group & Organization Management , 32 ( 1 ) : 50 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smitherman , G. 2000 . Talking that talk: Language, culture, and education in African America London, , UK : Routledge. .
   Google Scholar
• SPSS , Inc . 2008 . SPSS for Windows 17.0 Chicago, IL : Author. .
   Google Scholar
• Tillie Allen , N. 2005 . Exploring hip-hop therapy with high-risk youth . Praxis , 5 : 30 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• Travis , R. and Deepak , A. 2011 . Empowerment in context: Lessons from hip-hop culture for social work practice . Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work , 20 : 1 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Tyson , E. 2002 . Hip-Hop therapy: An exploratory study of a rap music intervention with at-risk and delinquent youth . Journal of Poetry Therapy , 15 ( 3 ) : 131 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Tyson , E. 2003 . Rap music in social work practice with African American and Latino youth: A conceptual model with practical applications . Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment , 8 ( 4 ) : 1 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Tyson , E. 2005 . The rap music attitude and perception (RAP) scale: Scale development and preliminary analysis of psychometric properties . Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment , 11 ( 3/4 ) : 59 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• Tyson , E. 2006 . Rap-music attitude and perception scale: A validation study . Research on Social Work Practice , 16 ( 2 ) : 211 – 223 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallerstein , N. and Freudenberg , N. 1998 . Linking health promotion and social justice: A rationale and two case stories . Health Education Research , 13 ( 3 ) : 451 – 457 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingood , G. , DiClemente , R. , Bernhardt , J. , Harrington , K. Davies and Robillard , A. 2003 . A prospective study of exposure to rap music videos and African American female adolescents' health . American Journal of Public Health , 93 ( 3 ) : 437 – 439 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zillman , D. , Aust , C. , Hoffman , K. , Love , C. , Ordman , V. , Pope , J. and Gibson , R. J. 1995 . Radical rap: Does it further ethnic division? . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 16 ( 1/2 ) : 1 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar