Does Bullying Victimization Suppress IQ? The Effects of Bullying Victimization on IQ in Iraqi and African American Adolescents: A Traumatology Perspective

REFERENCES

• Altamirano, L., Miyake, A., & Whitmer, A. (2010). When mental inflexibility facilitates executive control: Beneficial side effects of ruminative tendencies on goal maintenance. Psychological Science, 21, 1377–1382.
   Google Scholar
• Arbuckle, J. L. (2006). AMOS 7.0 user’s guide. Chicago: SPSS.
   Google Scholar
• Arseneault, L., Bowes, L., & Shakoor, S. (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: “Much ado about nothing?” Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences, 40, 717–729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Fisher, H. L., Polanczyk, G., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2011). Childhood trauma and children’s emerging psychotic symptoms: A genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(1), 65–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Nuss, C. K. (2002). Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 817–827.
   Google Scholar
• Bevier, C. A. (1999). Racial differences in cognitive abilities: A meta-analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(05B), 2396. ( UMI No. 9929716)
   Google Scholar
• Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Klauminzer, G., Charney, D. S., et al. (1990). A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS–1. The Behavior Therapist, 13, 187–188.
   Google Scholar
• Breslau, N., Lucia, V., & Alvarado, G. (2006). Intelligence and other predisposing factors in exposure to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1238–1245.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, J. V. (2008). Perceptions of bullying and associated trauma during adolescence. Professional School Counseling, 11, 179–188.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2010). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for traumatized children. In J. R. Weisz & A. E. Kazdin ( Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 295–311). New York: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Cole, D. A., Maxwell, M. A., Dukewich, T. L., & Yosick, R. (2010). Targeted peer victimization and the construction of positive and negative self-cognitions: Connections to depressive symptoms in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 421–435.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, C., Williams, K., Guerra, N., Kim, T., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtois, C. A., Ford, J. D., Herman, J. L., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2009). Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide. New York: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• De Bellis, M., & Kuchibhatla, M. (2006). Cerebellar volumes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 697–703.
   Google Scholar
• Fawzi, M. H., Kira, I. A., Fawzi, M. M., Jr., Mohamed, H. E., & Fawzi, M. M. (2013). Trauma profile in Egyptian adolescents with first episode schizophrenia: Relation to psychopathology and plasma BDNF. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201, 23–29.
   Google Scholar
• Feder, J., Levant, R. F., & Dean, J. (2010). Boys and violence: A gender-informed analysis. Psychology of Violence, 1, 3–12.
   Google Scholar
• Glass, L. A., Ryan, J., Charter, R., & Bartels, J. M. (2009). Discrepancy score reliabilities in the WISC–IV standardization sample. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 138–144.
   Google Scholar
• Hunter, S., Durkin, K., Heim, D., Howe, C., & Bergin, D. (2010). Psychosocial mediators and moderators of the effect of peer-victimization upon depressive symptomatology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1141–1149.
   Google Scholar
• Juvonen, J., Wang, Y., & Espinoza, G. (2011). Bullying experiences and compromised academic performance across middle school grades. Journal of Early Adolescence, 31, 152–173.
   Google Scholar
• Kalton, G., & Anderson, D. (1986). Sampling rare populations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 149(1), 65–82.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman, A. S. (1994). Intelligent testing with the WISC–III. Oxford: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Bergland, P., Olga, D., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM–IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–768.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I. (2001). Taxonomy of trauma and trauma assessment. Traumatology: An International Journal, 2, 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I. (2004). Secondary trauma in treating refugee survivors of torture and their families. Torture, 14, 38–44.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I. (2010). Etiology and treatments of post-cumulative traumatic stress disorders in different cultures. Traumatology: An International Journal, 16, 128–141.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Fawzi, M., & Fawzi, M. (2013). The dynamics of cumulative trauma and trauma types in adult patients with psychiatric disorders: Two cross-cultural studies. Traumatology: An International Journal, 19, 179–195.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Somers, C., Yoon, J., & Chiodo, L. (2012a). The linear and non-linear associations between multiple types of trauma and IQ discrepancy indexes in African American and Iraqi refugee adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 5, 47–62.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Somers, C., Yoon, J., & Chiodo, L. (2012b). PTSD, trauma types, cumulative trauma, and IQ: The case of African American and Iraqi refugee adolescents. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 128–139.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Templin, T., Ramaswamy, V., Chiodo, L., Ozkan, B., et al. (2008, August). Measuring cumulative trauma dose, types and profiles using a development-based taxonomy of traumas: The long version. Paper presented at the 116th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Boston, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Templin, T., Ramaswamy, V., Ozkan, B., & Mohanesh, J. (2010). The effects of perceived discrimination and backlash on Iraqi refugees’ physical and mental health. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 5, 59–81.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Lewandowski, L., Templin, T., Ramaswamy, V., Ozkan, B., & Mohanesh, J. (2008). Measuring cumulative trauma dose, types and profiles using a development-based taxonomy of trauma. Traumatology: An International Journal, 14(2), 62–87.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Smith, I., Lewandowski, L., & Templin, T. (2010). The effects of perceived gender discrimination on refugee torture survivors: A cross-cultural traumatology perspective. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 16, 299–306.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kira, I., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Ashby, J. S., Oladele, A., & Odenat, L. (2012). Cumulative Trauma Disorder scale: Two studies. Psychology, 3, 643–656.
   Google Scholar
• Kira, I., Templin, T., Lewandowski, L., Ramaswamy, V., Bulent, O., Abu-Mediane, S., et al. (2011). Cumulative tertiary appraisal of traumatic events across cultures: Two studies. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16, 43–66.
   Google Scholar
• Klonoff, E. A., Landrine, H., & Ullman, J. B. (1999). Racial discrimination and psychiatric symptoms among Blacks. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 329–339.
   Google Scholar
• Lamb, M. J., & Jablonka, E. (2005). Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 202–214.
   Google Scholar
• Loo, C. M., Fairbank, J. A., Scurfield, R. M., Ruch, L. O., King, D. W., Adams, L., et al. (2001). Measuring exposure to racism: Development and validation of a race-related stressor scale (RRSS) for Asian American Vietnam veterans. Psychological Assessment, 13, 503–520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2008). Intensive remedial identity work: Responses to workplace bullying trauma and stigmatization. Organization, 15, 97–119.
   Google Scholar
• McEvoy, P. M., Nathan, P., & Norton, P. J. (2009). Efficacy of transdiagnostic treatments: A review of published outcome studies and future research directions. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 20–33.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy, M. L. M., Slavich, G. M., Rohleder, N., & Miller, G. (2013). Targeted rejection triggers differential pro- and anti-inflammatory gene expression in adolescents as a function of social status. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 30–40.
   Google Scholar
• Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simmons-Morton, B., & Schmidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094–2100.
   Google Scholar
• Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Parkins, I., Fishbein, H., & Ritchey, P. N. (2006). The influence of personality on workplace bullying and discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 2554–2577.
   Google Scholar
• Sapouna, M. (2010). Collective efficacy in the school context: Does it help explain victimization and bullying among Greek primary and secondary school students? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 1912–1927.
   Google Scholar
• Schulte, T., & Muller-Oehring, E. M. (2010). Contribution of callosal connections to the interhemispheric integration of visuomotor and cognitive processes. Neuropsychology Review, 20, 174–190.
   Google Scholar
• Teicher, M. H., Samson, J. A., Sheu, Y. S., Polcari, A., & McGreenery, C. E. (2010). Hurtful words: Association of exposure to peer verbal abuse with elevated psychiatric symptom scores and corpus callosum abnormalities. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1464–1471.
   Google Scholar
• Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 10–20.
   Google Scholar
• Vaillancourt, T., Duku, E., Becker, S., Schmidt, L., Nicol, J., Muir, C., et al. (2011). Peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and high salivary cortisol predict poorer memory in children. Brain and Cognition, 77, 191–199.
   Google Scholar
• van der Knaap, L. J., & van der Ham, I. J. M. (2011). How does the corpus callosum mediate interhemispheric transfer? A review. Behavioural Brain Research, 223, 211–221.
   Google Scholar
• Vernberg, E. M., Jacobs, A. K., & Hershberger, S. (1999). Peer victimization and attitudes about violence during early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 386–395.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F., Keane, T., & Davidson, J. (2001). The Clinician-Administered PTSD scale: A review of the first ten years of research. Depression and Anxiety, 13, 132–156.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2003). WISC–IV technical and interpretive manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar