Insecure Adult Attachment Style and PTSD Symptom Severity among Firefighters: The Role of Distress Tolerance

References

• Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1993). Attachments and other affectional bonds across the life cycle. In C.M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P.Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the Life Cycle (pp. 33–51). Tavistock/Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203132470
   Google Scholar
• Akbari, M., Hoseeini, Z. S., Seydavi, M., Zegel, M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2022). Distress tolerance and posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 51(1), 42–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2021.1942541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.).
   Google Scholar
• Banducci, A. N., Bujarski, S. J., Bonn-Miller, M. O., Patel, A., & Connolly, K. M. (2016). The impact of intolerance of emotional distress and uncertainty on veterans with co-occurring PTSD and substance use disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 41, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banducci, A. N., Connolly, K. M., Vujanovic, A. A., Alvarez, J., & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2017). The impact of changes in distress tolerance on PTSD symptom severity post-treatment among veterans in residential trauma treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 47, 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett, B. A., Jardin, C., Martin, C., Tran, J. K., Buser, S., Anestis, M. D., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2018). Posttraumatic stress and suicidality among firefighters: The moderating role of distress tolerance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 42(4), 483–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-018-9892-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett, B. A., Gallagher, M. W., Tran, J. K., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2019). Military veteran status and posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology among urban firefighters: The moderating role of emotion regulation difficulties. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 207(4), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaton, R., Murphy, S., Johnson, C., Pike, K., & Corneil, W. (1998). Exposure to duty‐related incident stressors in urban firefighters and paramedics. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 11(4), 821–828. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024461920456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 759. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A. (2016). Social attachments and traumatic stress. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1), 29065. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.29065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A., & Datta, S. (2019). Reconsolidating intrusive distressing memories by thinking of attachment figures. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(6), 1249–1256. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619866387
   Google Scholar
• Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 301–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu, C., Buchman-Schmitt, J. M., Hom, M. A., Stanley, I. H., & Joiner, T. E., Jr. (2016). A test of the interpersonal theory of suicide in a large sample of current firefighters. Psychiatry Research, 240, 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.03.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coan, J. A. (2011). The social regulation of emotion. In J. Decety & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Oxford handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 614–623). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(4), 644. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd Edition ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Haynes, H. J. G., & Stein, G. P. (2017). U.S. Fire Department Profile–2015. National Fire Protection Association.
   Google Scholar
• Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, C. C., Vega, L., Kohalmi, A. L., Roth, J. C., Howell, B. R., & Van Hasselt, V. B. (2020). Enhancing mental health treatment for the firefighter population: Understanding fire culture, treatment barriers, practice implications, and research directions. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 51(3), 304. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000266
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard, S. J., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2021). Thwarted belongingness and PTSD symptom severity among firefighters: The role of emotion regulation difficulties. Behavior Modification, 46(2), 352–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455211002105
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leyro, T. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bernstein, A. (2010). Distress tolerance and psychopathological symptoms and disorders: A review of the empirical literature among adults. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 576–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019712
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahmoudpour, A., Farahbakhsh, K., & Balochzadeh, E. (2018). Prediction of women’s marital commitment based on their attachment styles, self-compassion and distress tolerance. Family Counseling and Psychotherapy, 8(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1001/1.22516654.1397.8.1.4.1
   Google Scholar
• Marshall‐Berenz, E. C., Vujanovic, A. A., Bonn‐Miller, M. O., Bernstein, A., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2010). Multimethod study of distress tolerance and PTSD symptom severity in a trauma‐exposed community sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(5), 623–630. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, E. C., Zimering, R., Daly, E., Knight, J., Kamholz, B. W., & Gulliver, S. B. (2012). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and other psychological symptoms in trauma-exposed firefighters. Psychological Services, 9(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/a002641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2003). The attachment behavioral system in adulthood: Activation, psychodynamics, and interpersonal processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 56–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(03)01002-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, Dynamics, and Change. The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). An attachment perspective on psychopathology. World Psychiatry, 11(1), 11–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpsyc.2012.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, L., Macdonald, R., & Brodie, E. (2004). Temperature and the cold pressor test. Journal of Pain, 5(4), 233–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2004.03.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nietlisbach, G., & Maercker, A. (2009). Social cognition and interpersonal impairments in trauma survivors with PTSD. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18(4), 382–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770902881489
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor, M., & Elklit, A. (2008). Attachment styles, traumatic events, and PTSD: A cross-sectional investigation of adult attachment and trauma. Attachment & Human Development, 10(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730701868597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ortigo, K. M., Westen, D., DeFife, J. A., & Bradley, B. (2013). Attachment, social cognition, and posttraumatic stress symptoms in a traumatized, urban population: Evidence for the mediating role of object relations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(3), 361–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658.supp
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roisman, G. I., Holland, A., Fortuna, K., Fraley, R. C., Clausell, E., & Clark, A. (2007). The adult attachment interview and self-reports of attachment style: An empirical rapproachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 678–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.678
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharp, C., Fonagy, P., & Allen, J. G. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A social‐cognitive perspective. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19(3), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, J. S., & Gaher, R. M. (2005). The distress tolerance scale: Development and validation of a self-report measure. Motivation and Emotion, 29(2), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-005-7955-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, I. H., Boffa, J. W., Hom, M. A., Kimbrel, N. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2017). Differences in psychiatric symptoms and barriers to mental health care between volunteer and career firefighters. Psychiatry Research, 247, 236–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.11.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., Chu, C., Dougherty, S. P., Gallyer, A. J., Spencer-Thomas, S., Sachs-Ericsson, N. J., Comtois, K. A., Gutierrez, P. M., Sachs-Ericsson, N. J., Joiner, T. E., & Shelef, L. (2019). Perceptions of belongingness and social support attenuate PTSD symptom severity among firefighters: A multistudy investigation. Psychological Services, 16(4), 543. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaka, J., Magoc, D., Morales‐Monks, S. M., & Reyes, A. C. (2017). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and alcohol‐related outcomes among municipal firefighters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(4), 416–424. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trafton, J. A., & Gifford, E. V. (2011). In M. J. Zvolensky, A. Bernstein, & A. A. Vujanovic (Eds.), Distress Tolerance: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications (pp. 80–102). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Venta, A., Hatkevich, C., Mellick, W., Vanwoerden, S., & Sharp, C. (2017). Social cognition mediates the relation between attachment schemas and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(1), 88. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrticka, P., & Vuilleumier, P. (2012). Neuroscience of human social interactions and adult attachment style. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 212. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrtička, P., Bondolfi, G., Sander, D., & Vuilleumier, P. (2012). The neural substrates of social emotion perception and regulation are modulated by adult attachment style. Social Neuroscience, 7(5), 473–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2011.647410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., Litz, B. T., & Farris, S. G. (2015). Distress tolerance as risk and maintenance factor for PTSD: Empirical and clinical implications. In C. R. Martin, V. R. Preedy, & V. B. Patel (Eds.), Comprehensive guide to post-traumatic stress disorder (pp. 1–13). Springer International Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., Rathnayaka, N., Amador, C. D., & Schmitz, J. M. (2016). Distress tolerance: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among trauma-exposed, cocaine-dependent adults. Behavior Modification, 40(1–2), 120–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445515621490
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., Dutcher, C. D., & Berenz, E. C. (2017). Multimodal examination of distress tolerance and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in acute-care psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 48, 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.08.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., Bakhshaie, J., Martin, C., Reddy, M. K., & Anestis, M. D. (2017). Posttraumatic stress and distress tolerance: Associations with suicidality in acute-care psychiatric inpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205(7), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000690
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., & Zegel, M. (2020). Distress tolerance and posttraumatic stress. In M. T. Tull & N. A. Kimbrel (Eds.), Emotion in posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 343–376). Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816022-0.00012-0
   Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., & Tran, J. K. (2021). Providing psychological services to firefighters. Journal of Health Service Psychology, 47(3), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-021-00041-6
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov
   Google Scholar
• Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2007). The Experiences in Close Relationship scale (ECR)-short form: Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890701268041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodhouse, S., Ayers, S., & Field, A. P. (2015). The relationship between adult attachment style and post-traumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 35, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zegel, M., Tran, J. K., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2019). Posttraumatic stress, alcohol use, and alcohol use motives among firefighters: The role of distress tolerance. Psychiatry Research, 282, 112633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar