A blood lead benchmark for assessing risks from childhood lead exposure

References

• Rabinowitz , M. , Wetherill , G. W. and Kopple , J. D. 1974 . Studies of human lead metabolism by use of stable isotope tracers . Environ. Health Perspect. , 7 : 145 – 153 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ziegler , E. E. , Edwards , B. B. , Jensen , R. L. , Mahaffey , K. R. and Fomon , S. A. 1978 . Absorption and retention of lead by infants . Pediat. Res. , 12 : 29 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman , H. L. 1982 . The neurobehavioral consequences of low lead exposure in childhood . Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. , 4 : 729 – 732 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koller , K. , Brown , T. , Spurgeon , A. and Levy , L. 2004 . Recent developments in low-level lead exposure and intellectual impairment in children . Environ. Health Perspect. , 112 : 987 – 994 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin , R. , Brown , M. J. , Kashtock , M. E. , Jacobs , D. E. , Whelan , E. A. , Rodman , J. , Schock , M. R. , Padilla , A. and Sinks , T. 2008 . Children's lead exposure in the USA, 2008: Implications for prevention . Environ. Health Perspect. , 116 : 1285 – 1293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gersberg , R. M. , Gaynor , K. , Tenczar , D. , Bartzen , M. , Ginsberg , M. and Gresham , L. S. 1997 . Quantitative modeling of lead exposure from glazed pottery in childhood lead poisoning cases . Int. J. Environ. Health Res. , 7 : 193 – 202 .
   Google Scholar
• Lynch , R. A. , Boatright , D. T. and Moss , S. K. 2000 . Lead-contaminated imported tamarind candy and children's blood lead levels . Public Health Rep. , 115 : 537 – 543 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trotter , R. T. 1985 . Greta and Azarcon: A survey of episodic lead poisoning from a folk remedy . Hum. Organ. , 44 : 64 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtney , J. G. , Ash , S. , Kilpatrick , N. , Buchanan , S. , Meyer , P. and Kim , D. 2002 . Childhood lead poisoning associated with tamarind candy and folk remedies - California, 1999–2000 . MMWR. , 51 : 684 – 686 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dorfman , J. S. , Quattrone , A. , Jacobs , R. M. , Batarseh , N. , Bird , C. W. and Carlson , W. T. 1998 . Lead poisoning associated with imported candy and powdered food coloring - California and Michigan . MMWR. , 47 : 1041 – 1043 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tehranifar , P. , Leighton , J. , Auchincloss , A. H. , Faciano , A. , Alper , H. , Paykin , A. and Wu , S. 2008 . Immigration and risk of childhood lead poisoning: findings from a case control study of New York City children . Am. J. Public. Health , 98 : 92 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2006 . Air Quality Criteria for Lead EPA/600/R-5/144aF Available from: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=158823
   Google Scholar
• Needleman , H. L. 2004 . Lead poisoning . Ann. Rev. Med. , 55 : 209 – 222 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. , Hu , H. , Titlebaum , L. and Needleman , H. L. 1994 . Attentional correlates of dentin and bone lead levels in adolescents . Arch Environ. Health , 49 : 98 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman , H. L. , Riess , J. A. , Tobin , M. J. , Biesecker , G. E. and Greenhouse , J. B. 1996 . Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior . J. Amer. Med. Assoc. , 275 : 363 – 369 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman , H. L. , McFarland , C. , Ness , R. B. , Fienberg , S. E. and Tobin , M. J. 2002 . Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents: A case control study . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 24 : 711 – 717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulson , B. L. , Pounds , J. G. , Mushak , P. , Thomas , B. J. , Gray , B. and Korsch , M. J. 1999 . Estimation of cumulative lead release (lead flux) from the maternal skeleton during pregnancy and lactation . J. Lab. Clin. Med. , 134 : 631 – 640 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , P. J. , Sheng , Y. Z. , Wang , Q. Y. , Gu , L. Y. and Wang , Y. L. 2000 . Transfer of lead via placenta and breast milk in human . Biomed. Environ. Sci. , 13 : 85 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . August 2007 . Toxicological Profile for Lead, Monograph , August , Atlanta : US Dept. of Health and Human Services .
   Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. , Rabinowitz , M. , Allred , E. , Needleman , H. and Schoenbaum , S. 1991 . Weight gain and maturity in fetuses exposed to low levels of lead . Environ. Res. , 54 : 151 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• California Air Resources Board . 1997 . Proposed identification of inorganic lead as a toxic air contaminant http://o3.arb.ca.gov/regact/lead/isor.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bernard , S. M. 2003 . Should the centers for disease control and prevention's childhood lead poisoning intervention level be lowered? . Am. Jour. Public Health , 93 : 1253 – 1260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jusko , T. A. , Henderson , C. R. , Lanphear , B. P. , Cory-Slechta , D. A. , Parsons , P. J. and Canfield , R. L. 2008 . Blood lead concentrations < 10 μg/dL and child intelligence at 6 years of age . Environ. Health. Perspect. , 116 : 243 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lidsky , T. I. and Schneider , J. S. 2003 . Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates . Brain , 126 : 5 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U. S. Food and Drug Administration . 1996 . Dangers of lead still linger http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fdalead.html
   Google Scholar
• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2004 . Integrated Risk Information System, Lead and compounds (inorganic) http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0277.htm
   Google Scholar
• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2008 . National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead 40 CFR Parts 50, 51, 53 and 58 http://www.epa.gov/air/lead/pdfs/20081015_pb_naaqs_final.pdf[EPA-HQ-OAR-2006-0735; FRL-_____-___] RIN 2060-AN83
   Google Scholar
• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics . 2002 . Interpretive guidance for the federal program TSCA sections 402/403
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2005 . Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children , Atlanta : U. S. Dept. of Health and Human Services .
   Google Scholar
• Binns , H. J. , Campbell , C. and Brown , M. J. 2007 . Interpreting and managing blood lead levels of less than 10 μg/dL in children and reducing childhood exposure to lead: recommendations of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention . Pediatrics , 120 : e1285 – e1298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanphear , B. P. , Hornung , R. , Khoury , J. , Yolton , K. , Baghurst , P. , Bellinger , D. C. , Canfield , R. L. , Dietrich , K. N. , Bornschein , R. , Greene , T. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Needleman , H. L. , Schnaas , L. , Wasserman , G. , Graziano , J. and Roberts , R. 2005 . Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 894 – 899 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell , B. M. and Bradley , R. 1977 . Home observation for measurement of the environment: a validation . Amer. J. Mental Defic. , 81 : 417 – 420 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rothenberg , S. J. and Rothenberg , J. C. 2005 . Testing the dose-response specification in epidemiology and public health and policy consequences for lead . Environ. Health Perspect. , 13 : 1190 – 1195 .
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman , A. S. 2001 . Do low levels of lead produce ID loss in children? A careful examination of the literature . Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. , 16 : 303 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nation , J. R. and Gleaves , D. H. 2001 . Low-level lead exposure and intelligence in children . Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. , 16 : 375 – 388 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. C. 2004 . What is an adverse effect? A possible resolution of clinical and epidemiological perspectives on neurobehavioral toxicity . Environ. Res. , 95 : 394 – 405 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogan , W. J. and Ware , J. H. 2003 . Exposure to lead in children — How low is low enough? . Engl. NJ. Med. , 348 : 1515 – 1516 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canfield , R. I. and Henderson , C. R. 2004 . Intellectual impairment and blood lead levels (Correspondence) . Engl N. J. Med. , 349 : 501
   Google Scholar
• California Department of Toxic Substances Control . 2007 . Lead risk assessment spreadsheet http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/AssessingRisk/leadspread.cfm
   Google Scholar
• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency . December 2005 . Integrated exposure uptake biokinetic model for lead in children December , http://www.epa.gov/superfund/health/contaminants/lead/products.htmWindows™ version (IEUBKwin v1.0 build 263)
   Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. , Leviton , A. , Waternaux , C. , Needleman , H. and Rabinowitz , M. 1987 . Longitudinal analyses of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development . N. Engl. J. Med. , 316 : 1037 – 1043 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. , Sloman , J. , Leviton , A. , Rabinowitz , M. , Needleman , H. L. and Waternaux , C. 1991 . Low-level lead exposure and children's cognitive function in the preschool years . Pediatrics , 87 : 219 – 227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiles , K. M. and Bellinger , D. C. 1993 . Neuropsychological correlates of low-level lead exposure in school-age children: a prospective study . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 15 : 27 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walkowiak , J. , Altmann , L. , Kramer , U. , Sveinsson , K. , Turfedl , M. and Weishoff-Houben , M. 1998 . Cognitive & sensory-motor function in 6-year-old children in relation to lead and mercury levels: adjustment for intelligence and contrast sensitivity in computerized testing . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 20 : 511 – 521 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , J. 1994 . Low-level lead exposure and children's IQ: a meta-analysis and search for a threshold . Environ. Res. , 65 : 42 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanphear , B. P. , Dietrich , K. , Auinger , P. and Cox , C. 2000 . Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations < 10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents . Public Health Rep. , 115 : 521 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , C. L. , Chuang , H. Y. , Ho , C. K. , Yang , C. Y. , Tsai , J. L. , Wu , T. S. and Wu , T. N. 2002 . Relationship between blood lead concentrations and learning achievement among primary school children in Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 89 : 12 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emory , E. , Ansari , Z. , Pattillo , R. , Archibold , E. and Chevalier , J. 2003 . Maternal blood lead effects on infant intelligence at age 7 months . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 188 : S26 – S32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canfield , R. I. , Henderson , C. R. , Cory-Slechta , D. A. , Cox , C. , Jusko , T. A. and Lanphear , B. P. 2003 . Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 μg per deciliter . N. Engl. J. Med. , 348 : 1517 – 1526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soong , W. T. , Chao , K. Y. , Jang , C. S. and Wang , J. D. 1999 . Long-term effect of increased lead absorption on intelligence of children . Arch. Environ. Health , 54 : 297 – 301 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnaas , L. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Perroni , E. , Martinez , S. , Hernandez , C. and Hernandez , R. M. 2000 . Temporal pattern in the effect of postnatal blood lead level on intellectual development of young children . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 22 : 805 – 810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , A. , Dietrich , K. , Ware , J. H. , Radcliffe , J. and Rogan , W. J. I. 2005 . Q, and blood lead from 2 to 7 years of Age: Are the effects in older children the residual of high blood lead concentrations in 2-year-olds? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 597 – 601 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Factor-Litvak , P. , Wassermanm , G. , Klinem , J. K. and Grazianom , J. 1999 . The Yugoslavia prospective study of environmental lead exposure . Environ. Health. Perspect. , 107 : 9 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emory , E. , Pattillo , R. , Archibold , E. , Bayorh , M. and Sung , F. 1999 . Neurobehavioral effects of low-level lead exposure in human neonates . Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 181 : S2 – S11 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrich , K. N. , Berger , O. G. and Succop , P. A. 1993 . Lead exposure and the motor developmental status of urban six-year-old children in the Cincinnati prospective study . Pediatrics. , 91 : 301 – 307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrich , K. N. , Ris , M. D. , Succop , P. A. , Berger , O. G. and Bornschein , R. L. 2001 . Early exposure to lead and juvenile delinquency . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 23 : 511 – 518 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , J. P. , Dietrich , K. N. , Ris , M. D. , Hornung , R. W. , Wessel , S. D. , Ho , M. and Rae , M. N. 2008 . Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood . PLoS Med. , 5 : e101.0732 – 0739 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nevin , R. 2000 . How lead exposure relates to temporal changes in IQ, violent crime, and unwed pregnancy . Env. Research , 83 : 1 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nevin , R. 2008 . Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of pre-school lead exposure . Env. Research , 104 : 315 – 336 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernhart , C. B. , Morrow-Tlucak , M. , Wolf , A. W. , Super , D. and Drotar , D. 1989 . Low level lead exposure in the prenatal and early preschool periods: intelligence prior to school entry . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 11 : 161 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surkan , P. J. , Zhang , A. , Trachtenberg , F. , Daniel , D. B. , Sonja McKinlay , S. and Bellinger , D. C. 2007 . Neuropsychological function in children with blood lead levels < 10 mg/dL . Neurotoxicology , 28 : 1170 – 1177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canfield , R. L. , Kreher , D. A. , Cornwell , C. and Henderson , C. R. 2003 . Low-level lead exposure, executive functioning, and learning in early childhood . Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. Sect. C. Child Neuropsychol. , 9 : 35 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernhart , C. B. 2006 . Effects of lead on IQ in children (correspondence) . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : A85 – A86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanphear , B. P. , Hornung , R. , Khoury , J. , Yolton , K. and Dietrich , K. N. 2006 . Lead on IQ in children: Lanphear et al respond (correspondence) . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : A86 – A87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebben , N. 2001 . Low lead levels and neuropsychological assessment: let us not be mislead . Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. , 16 : 353 – 357 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Needleman , H. L. and Bellinger , D. 2001 . Studies of lead exposure and the developing central nervous system: a reply to Kaufman . Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. , 16 : 359 – 374 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman , A. S. 2001 . How dangerous are low (not moderate or high) doses of lead for children's intellectual development? . Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. , 16 : 403 – 431 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton , R. I. and Øde gaard , T. 2005 . Causal thinking and causal language in epidemiology: it's in the details . Epidemiol. Persp. Innovat. , 2 : 8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwemberger , J. G. , Mosby , J. E. , Doa , M. J. , Jacobs , D. E. , Ashley , P. J. and Brody , D. J. 2005 . Blood lead levels – United States, 1999–2002 . MMWR Weekly , 54 : 513 – 516 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Flegal , A. R. and Smith , D. R. 1992 . Lead levels in pre-industrial humans (correspondence) . N. Eng. J. Med. , 326 : 1293 – 1294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. C. and Needleman , H. L. 2003 . Intellectual impairment and blood lead levels [letter] . N. Engl. J. Med. , 349 : 349 – 500 .
   Google Scholar
• Dietrich , K. N. , Berger , O. G. , Succop , P. A. , Hammond , P. B. and Bornschein , R. L. 1993 . The developmental consequences of low to moderate prenatal and postnatal lead exposure: intellectual attainment in the Cincinnati Lead Study Cohort following school entry . Neurotoxicol. Teratol. , 15 : 37 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kordas , K. , Canfield , R. L. , López , P. , Rosado , J. L. , Vargas , G. G. , Cébrian , M. E. , Rico , J. A. , Ronquillo , D. and Stoltzfus , R. J. 2006 . Deficits in cognitive function and achievement in Mexican first-graders with low blood lead concentrations . Environ. Res. , 100 : 371 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Téllez-Rojo , M. M. , Bellinger , D. C. , Arroyo-Quiroz , C. , Lamadrid-Figueroa , H. , Mercado-García , A. , Schnaas-Arrieta , L. , Wright , R. O. , Hernández-Avila , M. and Hu , H. 2006 . Longitudinal associations between blood lead concentrations < 10 μg/dL and neurobehavioral development in environmentally-exposed children in Mexico City . Pediatrics , 118 : e323 – e330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman , G. A. , Liu , X. , Lolacono , N. J. , Factor-Litvak , P. , Kline , J. K. , Popovac , D. , Morina , N. , Musabegovic , A. , Vrenezi , N. , Capuni-Paracka , S. , Lekic , V. , Preteni-Redjepi , E. , Hadzialjevic , S. , Slavkovich , V. and Graziano , J. H. 1997 . Lead exposure and intelligence in 7-year-old children: the Yugoslavia prospective study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 956 – 962 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Saleh , I. , Nester , M. , DeVol , E. , Shinwari , N. , Munchari , L. and Al-Shahria , S. 2001 . Relationships between blood lead concentrations, intelligence, and academic achievement of Saudi Arabian schoolgirls . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 204 : 165 – 174 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baghurst , P. A. , McMichael , A. J. , Wigg , N. R. , Vimpani , G. V. , Robertson , E. F. , Roberts , R. J. and Tong , S.-L. 1992 . Environmental exposure to lead and children's intelligence at the age of seven years: the Port Pirie cohort study . N. Engl. J. Med. , 327 : 1279 – 1284 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnaas , L. , Rothenberg , S. J. , Flores , M.-F. , Martinez , S. , Hernandez , C. , Osorio , E. , Velasco , S. R. and Perroni , E. 2006 . Reduced intellectual development in children with prenatal lead exposure . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 791 – 797 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellinger , D. C. , Stiles , K. M. and Needleman , H. L. 1992 . Low-level lead exposure, intelligence and academic achievement: a long-term follow-up study . Pediatrics , 90 : 855 – 861 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar