Using pollution indices to develop a risk classification tool for gold mining contaminated soils

References

• Manzi, M. S. D.; Hein, K. A. A.; Durrheim, R.; King, N. Seismic Attribute Analysis to Enhance Detection of Thin Gold-Bearing Reefs: South Deep Gold Mine, Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. J. Appl. Geoph. 2013, 98, 212–228. DOI: 10.1016/j.jappgeo.2013.08.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lottermoser, B. G. Mine Waste: Characterization, Treatment, and Environmental Impacts. 3rd ed. New York: Springer, 2010. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-12419-8.
   Google Scholar
• Kossoff, D.; Dubbin, W. E.; Alfredsson, M.; Edward, S. J.; Macklin, M. G.; Hudson-Edwards, K. A. Mine Tailings Dams: Characteristics, Failure, Environmental Impacts, and Remediation. J. Appl. Geochem. 2014, 51, 229–245. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2014.09.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doronila, A. I.; Maddox, L. E.; Reichman, S. M.; King, D. J.; Kolev, S. D.; Woodrow, I. E. Vegetation Response of Australian Native Grass Species Redgrass (Bothriochloa Macra (Steudel) S. T. Blake) and Spider Grass (Enteropogon Acicularis (Lindl) Lazarides) in Saline and Arsenic Contaminated Gold Mine Tailings: A Glasshouse Study. Miner. Eng. 2014, 56, 61–69. DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2013.10.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fashola, M. O.; Ngole-Jeme, V. M.; Babalola, O. O. Physicochemical Properties, Heavy Metals, and Metal-Tolerant Bacteria Profiles of Abandoned Gold Mine Tailings in Krugersdorp, South Africa. Can. J. Soil. Sci. 2020, 100, 217–233. DOI: 10.1139/cjss-2018-0161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etteieb, S.; Magdouli, S.; Zolfaghari, M.; Brar, S. K. Monitoring and Analysis of Selenium as an Emerging Contaminant in Mining Industry: A Critical Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 698, 134339. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okereafor, U.; Makhatha, M.; Mekuto, L.; Uche-Okereafor, N.; Sebola, T.; Mavumengwana, V. Toxic Metal Implications on Agricultural Soils, Plants, Animals, Aquatic Life and Human Health. IJERPH 2020, 17, 2204–2224. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17072204.
   Google Scholar
• Tun, A. Z.; Wongsasuluk, P.; Siriwong, W. Heavy Metals in the Soils of Placer Small-Scale Gold Mining Sites in Myanmar. J. Health Pollut. 2020, 10, 200911. DOI: 10.5696/2156-9614-10.27.200911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nkuba, B.; Bervoets, L.; Geenen, S. Invisible and Ignored? Local Perspectives on Mercury in Congolese Gold Mining. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 221, 795–804. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, F.; Wang, S.; Mou, S.; Azimuddin, I.; Zhang, D.; Pan, X.; Al-Misned, F. A.; Mortuza, M. Physiological Responses and Accumulation of Heavy Metals and Arsenic of Medicago Sativa L. growing on Acidic Copper Mine Tailings in Arid Lands. J. Geochem. Explor. 2015, 157, 27–35. DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2015.05.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djebbi, C.; Chaabani, F.; Font, O.; Queralt, I.; Querol, X. Atmospheric Dust Deposition on Soils around an Abandoned Fluorite Mine (Hammam Zriba, NE Tunisia). Environ. Res. 2017, 158, 153–166. DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.05.032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masindi, V.; Muedi, K. L. Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals. In Heavy Metals; Saleh, H. E. M.; Aglan, R. F., Eds.; IntechOpen, London, 2018; pp 115–134. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76082.
   Google Scholar
• Ali, H.; Khan, E.; Sajad, M. A. Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals – Concepts and Applications. Chemosphere 2013, 91, 869–881. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngure, V.; Davies, T.; Kinuthia, G.; Sitati, N.; Shisia, S.; Oyoo-Okoth, E. Concentration Levels of Potentially Harmful Elements from Gold Mining in Lake Victoria Region, Kenya: Environmental and Health Implications. J. Geochem. Explor. 2014, 144, 511–516. DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.04.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hao, Q.; Jiang, C. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Soils and Plants in Rongxi Manganese Mine of Chongqing, Southwest of China. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2015, 35, 46–51. DOI: 10.1016/j.chnaes.2015.01.002.
   Google Scholar
• Olowoyo, J. O.; Okedeyi, O. O.; Mkolo, N. M.; Lion, G. N.; Mdakane, S. T. R. Uptake and Translocation of Heavy Metals by Medicinal Plants Growing around a Waste Dump Site in Pretoria, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2012, 78, 116–121. DOI: 10.1016/j.sajb.2011.05.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamunda, C.; Mathuthu, M.; Madhuku, M. Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soils from Witwatersrand Gold Mining Basin, South Africa. IJERPH 2016, 13, 663. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13070663.
   Google Scholar
• Engwa, G. A.; Ferdinand, P. U.; Nwalo, F. N.; Unachukwu, M. N. Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans. In Poisoning in the Modern World – New Tricks for an Old Dog?; Karcioglu, O., Arslan, B., Eds.; IntechOpen, London, 2019; pp 77–100. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.82511.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Adverse Health Effects of Heavy Metals in Children: Children’s Health and the Environment. WHO Training Package for the Health Sector, 2011. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/336875/WHO-HSE-PHE-EPE-11.01.07-eng.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Belle, G. N. Contamination of Water, Soil and Plants by Contaminants from Gold Mine Tailings in Matjhabeng Local Municipality, South Africa. PhD Dissertation, Central University of Technology, Free State, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/11462/2335.
   Google Scholar
• Yu, L.; Longqing, L.; Qiang, Z.; Yiming, Y.; Heling, W.; Ruijun, W.; Jihui, Z. Influence of Temperature on the Heavy Metals Accumulation of Five Vegetable Species in Semiarid Area of Northwest China. Chem. Ecol. 2013, 29, 353–365. DOI: 10.1080/02757540.2013.769970.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahlangeni, N. T.; Moodley, R.; Jonnalagadda, S. B. Heavy Metal Distribution in Laportea Peduncularis and Growth Soil from the Eastern Parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2016, 188, 76. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-5044-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, T.; Robinson, N.; Farrell, M.; Macdonald, B.; Weaver, T.; Antille, D. L.; Chin, A.; Brackin, R. Storage of Soil Samples Leads to over-Representation of the Contribution of Nitrate to Plant-Available Nitrogen. Soil Res. 2022, 60, 22–32. DOI: 10.1071/SR21013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamczyk-Szabela, D.; Wolf, W. M. The Impact of Soil pH on Heavy Metals Uptake and Photosynthesis Efficiency in Melissa Officinalis, Taraxacum Officinalis, Ocimum Basilicum. Molecules 2022, 27, 4671. DOI: 10.3390/molecules27154671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koki, I. B. Efficiencies of Acid Digestion/Leaching Techniques in the Determination of Iron Concentrations in Soils from Challawa Industrial Estate Kano, Nigeria. Merit Res. J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. 2015, 3, 65–71. https://meritresearchjournals.org/est/content/2015/May/Koki.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Moodley, R.; Koorbanally, N.; Jonnalagadda, S. B. Elemental Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of the Edible Fruits of Amatungula (Carissa Macrocarpa) and Impact of Soil Quality on Chemical Characteristics. Anal. Chim. Acta 2012, 730, 33–41. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.11.066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, Y.; Wang, D.; Wei, L.; Zhang, X.; Song, B. Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Plant Leaves from Yanan City of the Loess Plateau, China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2014, 110, 82–88. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.08.021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhuang, P.; McBride, M. B.; Xia, H.; Li, N.; Li, Z. Health Risk from Heavy Metals via Consumption of Food Crops in the Vicinity of Dabaoshan Mine, South China. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 1551–1561. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.10.061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gebeyehu, H. R.; Bayissa, L. D. Levels of Heavy Metals in Soil and Vegetables and Associated Health Risks in Mojo Area, Ethiopia. PLoS One. 2020, 15, e0227883. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juárez-Santillán, L. F.; Lucho-Constantino, C. A.; Vázquez-Rodríguez, G. A.; Cerón-Ubilla, N. M.; Beltrán-Hernández, R. I. Manganese Accumulation in Plants of the Mining Zone of Hidalgo, Mexico. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 5836–5841. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan, S.; Wang, X. Analysis and Assessment of Heavy Metals Pollution in Soils around a Pb and Zn Smelter in Baoji City, Northwest China. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess 2017, 23, 1099–1120. DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2017.1300857.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, X.; Cao, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Li, R.; Hu, B. Spatial Distribution and Pollution Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Surface Sediments of the Bohai and Yellow Seas. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 110, 596–602. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, J.; Teng, Y.; Lu, S.; Wang, Y.; Jiao, X. Evaluation of Soil Contamination Indices in a Mining Area of Jiangxi, China. PLoS One. 2014, 9, e112917. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasan, A. B.; Kabir, S.; Selim Reza, A. H.; Nazim Zaman, M.; Ahsan, A.; Rashid, M. Enrichment Factor and Geo-Accumulation Index of Trace Metals in Sediments of the Ship Breaking Area of Sitakund Upazilla (Bhatiary-Kumira), Chittagong, Bangladesh. J. Geochem. Explor. 2013, 125, 130–137. DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.12.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herselman, J. E. The Concentration of Selected Trace Metals in South African Soils. PhD Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/1390.
   Google Scholar
• Rudnick, R. L.; Gao, S. Composition of the Continental Crust. In Treatise Geochem; 2003; Vol. 3, pp 1–64. DOI: 10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4.
   Google Scholar
• Herselman, J. E.; Steyn, C. E.; Fey, M. V. Baseline Concentration of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn in Surface Soils of South Africa. S. Afri. J. Sci. 2005, 101, 509–512. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/9660.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendiola, L. L.; Dominguez, M. C. D.; Sandoval, M. R. G. Environmental Assessment of Active Tailings Piles in the State of Mexico (Central Mexico). Res. J. Environ. Sci. 2008, 2, 197–208. DOI: 10.3923/rjes.2008.197.208.
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland, R. A. Bed Sediment-Associated Trace Metals in an Urban Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. Environ. Geol. 2000, 39, 611–627. DOI: 10.1007/s002540050473.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller, G. Index of Geoaccumulation in Sediments of the Rhine River. GeoJournal 1969, 2, 108–118. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10030367619.
   Google Scholar
• Tutu, H.; McCarthy, T. S.; Cukrowska, E. The Chemical Characteristics of Acid Mine Drainage with Particular Reference to Sources, Distribution, and Remediation: The Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa as a Case Study. Appl. Geochem. 2008, 23, 3666–3684. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.09.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaishankar, M.; Tseten, T.; Anbalagan, N.; Mathew, B. B.; Beeregowda, K. N. Toxicity, Mechanism, and Health Effects of Some Heavy Metals. Interdiscip. Toxicol. 2014, 7, 60–72. DOI: 10.2478/intox-2014-0009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dallas, H. F. River Health Program: Site Characterization Field-Manual and Field-Data Sheets. Report prepared for Resource Quality Services, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South Africa, 2005. https://www.dws.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/reports/reportseries18.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and Human Health. Summary Tables 7.0, 2007. https://www.esdat.net/environmental%20standards/canada/soil/rev_soil_summary_tbl_7.0_e.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs. Framework for the Management of Contaminated Land. Government White Paper, South Africa, 2010. http://sawic.environment.gov.za/documents/562.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Laniyan, T. A.; Adewumi, A. J. Potential Ecological and Health Risks of Toxic Metals Associated with Artisanal Mining Contamination in Ijero, Southwest Nigeria. J. Environ. Sci. Health 2020, 55, 858–877. DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2020.1751504.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xu, D.; Zhou, P.; Zhan, J.; Gao, Y.; Dou, C.; Sun, Q. Assessment of Trace Metal Bioavailability in Garden Soils and Health Risks via Consumption of Vegetables in the Vicinity of Tongling Mining Area, China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2013, 90, 103–111. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.12.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, U. K.; Kumar, B. Pathways of Heavy Metals Contamination and Associated Human Health Risk in Ajay River Basin, India. Chemosphere 2017, 174, 183–199. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah, A.; Niaz, A.; Ullah, N.; Rehman, A.; Akhlaq, M.; Zakir, M.; Khan, M. S. Comparative Study of Heavy Metals in Soil and Selected Medicinal Plants. J. Chem. 2013, 2013, 1–5. DOI: 10.1155/2013/621265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandeng, E. P. B.; Bidjeck, L. M. B.; Bessa, A. Z. E.; Ntomb, Y. D.; Wadjou, J. W.; Doumo, E. P. E.; Dieudonné, L. B. Contamination and Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals, and Uranium of Sediments in Two Watersheds in Abiete-Toko Gold District, Southern Cameroon. Heliyon 2019, 5, E02591. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapwata, T.; Mathee, A.; Sweijd, N.; Minakawa, N.; Mogotsi, M.; Kunene, Z.; Wright, C. Y. Spatial Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Household Garden Soils in Rural Limpopo Province, South Africa. Environ. Geochem. Health 2020, 42, 4181–4191. DOI: 10.1007/s10653-020-00535-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adrees, M.; Ali, S.; Rizwan, M.; Ibrahim, M.; Abbas, F.; Farid, M.; Zia-Ur-Rehman, M.; Irshad, M.; Bharwana, S. A. The Effect of Excess Copper on Growth and Physiology of Important Food Crops: A Review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2015, 22, 8148–8162. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4496-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiou, W. Y.; Hsu, F. C. Copper Toxicity and Prediction Models of Copper Content in Leafy Vegetables. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6215. DOI: 10.3390/su11226215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, X. X.; Yang, X. E.; Ni, W. Z.; Ye, Z. Q.; He, Z. L.; Calvert, D. V.; Stoffella, J. P. Assessing Zinc Thresholds for Phytotoxicity and Potential Dietary Toxicity in Selected Vegetable Crops. Commun. Soil. Sci. Plant. Anal. 2003, 34, 1421–1434. DOI: 10.1081/CSS-120020454.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahid, M.; Shamshad, S.; Rafiq, M.; Khalid, S.; Bibi, I.; Niazi, N. K.; Dumat, C.; Rashid, M. I. Chromium Speciation, Bioavailability, Uptake, Toxicity and Detoxification in Soil–Plant System: A Review. Chemosphere 2017, 178, 513–533. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fashola, M. O.; Ngole-Jeme, V. M.; Babalola, O. O. Heavy Metal Pollution from Gold Mines: Environmental Effects and Bacterial Strategies for Resistance. IJERPH 2016, 13, 1047. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13111047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubrey, A.; Reynolds, Y. Vachellia karroo. South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2002. http://pza.sanbi.org/vachellia-karroo (accessed Sept 30, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Akram, Z.; Riaz, S.; Kayani, M. A.; Jahan, S.; Ahmad, M. W.; Ullah, M. A.; Wazir, H.; Mahjabeen, I. Lead Induces DNA Damage and Alteration of ALAD and Antioxidant Genes mRNA Expression in Construction Site Workers. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 2019, 74, 171–178. DOI: 10.1080/19338244.2018.1428523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meena, V.; Dotaniya, M. L.; Saha, J. K.; Das, H.; Patra, A. K. Impact of Lead Contamination on Agroecosystem and Human Health. In Lead in Plants and the Environment: Radionuclides and Heavy Metals in the Environment; Gupta, D., Chatterjee, S., Walther, C., Eds.; Springer: Cham, 2020; pp 67–82. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-21638-2_4.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, L. Selenium Toxicity. News – Medical Life Sciences, 2021. https://www.news-medical.net/health/Selenium-Toxicity.aspx (accessed May 20, 2022).
   Google Scholar