References
- Addin Soft. 2015. XLSTAT. https://www.xlstat.com/ (accessed March 13, 2017).
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1995. Toxicological Profile for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registr. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp69.pdf ( accessed March 13, 2016).
- Alberta Energy. 2016. About oil sands: Facts and statistics. http://www.energy.alberta.ca/oilsands/791.asp ( accessed February 25, 2016).
- Alberta Energy Regulator. 2015. 2014 Annual Air Reports: Oil Sands Mining Facilities. Calgary, Alberta: Alberta Energy Regulator.
- Alberta Energy Regulator and Alberta Health. 2016. Recurrent Human Health Complaints Technical Information Synthesis: Fort McKay Area. Calgary, Alberta: Alberta Energy Regulator. http://aer.ca/documents/reports/FortMcKay_FINAL.pdf ( accessed November 6, 2016).
- Alberta Environmental Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Agency. 2015. Data. http://aemeris.aemera.org (accessed January 23, 2016).
- Altman, D.G., J.T. Deeks, and D.L. Sackett. 1998. Odds ratios should be avoided when events are common. BMJ 317:1318. doi: 10.1136/bmj.317.7168.1318.
- Arciszewski, T., and K. Munkittrick. 2015. Developing an adaptive monitoring framework for long-term programs: An example using indicators of fish health. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manage. 11:701–18. doi: 10.1002/ieam.1636.
- Bari, M.D.A., and W.B. Kindzierski. 2015. Fifteen-year trends in criteria air contaminants in oil sands communities of Alberta. Environ. Int. 74:200–8. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.10.009.
- Bari, M.D.A., and W.B. Kindzierski. 2016. Evaluation of air quality indicators in Alberta, Canada—An international perspective. Environ. Int. 92:119–29. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.03.021.
- Bari, M.D.A., W.B. Kindzierski, and D.R. Spink. 2016. Twelve-year trends in ambient concentrations of volatile organic compounds in a community of the Alberta Oil Sands Region, Canada. Environ. Int. 91:40–50. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.02.015.
- Bernstein, J.A., N. Alexis, C. Barnes, I.L. Bernstein, N. Andre, D. Peden, D. Diaz-Sanchez, S.M. Tarlo, and P.B. Williams. 2004. Health effects of air pollution. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 114:116–23. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.08.030.
- Blanchard, C.L. 1999. Methods for attributing ambient air pollutants to emission sources. Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 24:329–365. doi: 10.1146/annurev.energy.24.1.329.
- Bland, J.M., and D.G. Altman. 2000. Statistics Notes: The odds ratio. BMJ 320:1468. doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7247.1468.
- Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 2012. Guidance Document on Air Zone Management. http://www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/air/aqms/pn_1481_gdazm_e.pdf. (accessed March 16, 2017).
- Canadian Natural Resources Ltd. 2011. Annual reports. http://www.cnrl.com/upload/media_element/496/01/w_cnq-2011-ar.pdf.
- Chan, C.K., and X. Yao. 2008. Air pollution in mega cities in China. Atmos. Environ. 42:1–42. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.003.
- Colls, J. 2002. Air Pollution. New York, NY: Spon Press.
- Cooper, O.R., R.-S. Gao, D. Tarasick, T. Leblanc, and C. Sweeney. 2012. Long-term ozone trends at rural ozone monitoring sites across the United States, 1990–2010. J. Geophys. Res. 117:D22307. doi: 10.1029/2012JD018261.
- Craig, L., J.R. Brook, Q. Chiotti, B. Croes, S. Gower, A. Hedley, D. Krewski, et al., 2008. Air pollution and public health: A guidance document for risk managers. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 71:588–698. doi: 10.1080/15287390801997732.
- Cumulative Environmental Management Association. 2012. Development of a modeling emissions inventory database for the implementation of emissions management frameworks. http://library.cemaonline.ca/ckan/dataset/2011-0038 (accessed February 16, 2016).
- Davies, M., R. Person, U. Nopmongcol, T. Shah, K. Vijayaraghavan, R. Morris, and D. Picard. 2012. Lower Athabasca Region Source and Emission Inventory. Fort McMurray, Alberta: Stantec Consulting Ltd., ENVIRON International Corporation and Clearstone Engineering Ltd. Prepared for CEMA, Cumulative Environmental Management Association (CEMA).
- Davies, M.J. 2012. Air quality modeling in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region. In Alberta Oil Sands Energy, Industry and the Environment, ed. K. E. Percy, 267–309. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
- Dennis, J., D. Spink, R. Abel, and D. Stuckless. 2015. Alberta oil sands development and odour issues: The First Nation of Fort McKay’s experience, perspectives and initiatives. Presented at Odour Management Conference and Technology Showcase, Toronto, September 14-15, 2015.
- Dlugokencky, E.J., E.G. Nisbet, R. Fisher, and D. Lowry. 2011. Global methane: Budget, changes and dangers. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 369:2058–72. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0341.
- Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2016 January 4. National Pollutant Release Inventory. https://www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/. (accessed January 20, 2016).
- Environmental Defence Canada. 2010. Dirty oil dirty air: Ottawa’s broken pollution promise. http://environmentaldefence.ca/reports/dirty-oil-dirty-air-ottawas-broken-pollution-promise (accessed February 25, 2016).
- Faisel, K., M. Gamel El-Din, and W.B. Kindzierski. 2006. Establishment of ambient air quality trends using historical monitoring data from Edmonton and Fort McKay, Alberta. Presented at the Annual General Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Calgary, May 23-26, 2006.
- Fann, N., C.M. Fulcher, and B.J. Hubbell. 2009. The influences of location, source, and emission type in estimates of human health benefits of reducing a ton of air pollution. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 2:169–76. doi: 10.1007/s11869-009-0044-0.
- Fioletov, V.E., C.A. McLinden, S. Netcheva, S.-M. Li, J.O. Brien, A. Cede, J. Davies, and C. Mihele. 2016. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) vertical column density measurements by Pandora spectrometer over the Canadian oil sands. Atmos. Measure. Tech. 9:2961–76. doi: 10.5194/amt-9-2961-2016.
- Fleming, S. W. 2010. Signal-to-noise ratios in geophysical and environmental time series. Environ. Eng. Geosci. 16:389–399. doi: 10.2113/gseegeosci.16.4.389.
- Fort McKay Industry Relations Corporation. 2010 March. Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/documents_staticpost/59540/83721/Fort_McKay_Specific_Assessment.pdf. (accessed October 4, 2015).
- Galarneau, E., B.P. Hollebone, Z. Yang, and J. Schuster. 2014. Preliminary measurement-based estimates of PAH emissions from oil sands ponds. Atmos. Environ. 97:332–5. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.08.038.
- Gossel, P., S.E. Hrudey, M.A. Naeth, A. Plourde, R. Therrien, G. Van Der Kraak, and Z. Xu. 2010. Royal Society of Canada Expert Panel, 2010. Environmental and Health Impacts of Canada’s Oil Sands Industry. Ottawa, Ontario: Royal Society of Canada.
- Government of Alberta. 2012. Lower Athabasca Regional Plan; Air quality management framework. www.landuse.ab.ca/LARP. (accessed November 16, 2017).
- Government of Alberta. 2016. Ambient air quality objectives and guidelines summary. http://aep.alberta.ca/air/legislation/ambient-air-quality-objectives/documents/AAQO-Summary-Jun2016.pdf. (accessed June 9, 2016).
- Helsel, D.R., and R.M. Hirsh. 2002. Statistical methods in water resources: Book 4. In Hydrologic Analysis and Interpretation, by United States Geological Survey, [Chapter A3]. Bolder, CO: US Geological Survey. http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/twri/twri4a3/.
- Henry, R.C. 2008. Locating and quantifying the impact of local sources of air pollution. Atmos. Environ. 42:358–363. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.039.
- Henry, R.C., Y.S. Chang, and C.H. Spiegelman. 2002. Locating nearby sources of air pollution by nonparametric regression of atmospheric concentrations on wind direction. Atmos. Environ. 36:2237–44. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00164-4.
- Hirsh, R.M., R.B. Alexander, and R.A. Smith. 1991. Selection of methods for the detection and estimation of trends in water quality. Water Resour. Res. 27:803–13. doi: 10.1029/91WR00259.
- International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2016. IARC Monograph Outdoor Air Pollution, Vol. 109. Lyon, France: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol109/index.php. (accessed November 6, 2016).
- Jerrett, M., M.A. Arain, P. Kanaroglou, B. Beckerman, D. Crouse, N.L. Gilbert, J.R. Brook, N. Finkelstein, and M.M. Finkelstein. 2007. Modeling the intraurban variability of ambient traffic pollution in Toronto, Canada. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 70:200–12. doi: 10.1080/15287390600883018.
- Kelly, E.N., J.W. Short, D.W. Shindler, P.V. Hodson, M. Mingsheng, A.K. Kwan, and B. Fortin. 2009. Oil sands development contributes polycyclic aromatic carbons to the Athabasca River and its tributaries. Proc. Natl. Aced. Sci. U. S. A. 106:22346–51. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0912050106.
- Kindzierski, W.B. 2010. Ten-year trends in regional air quality for criteria pollutants in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region. Presented at the 103rd Air and Waste Management Association Annual Conference and Exhibition, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 22–25, 2010, Paper 2010-A-1079-AWMA.
- Kindzierski, W.B., and M.A. Bari. 2011. Long-term temporal trends and influence of criteria pollutants on regional air quality in Fort McKay, Alberta. In Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on Environmental Management and Engineering: Unconventional Oil, Calgary, AB, July 4–6, 2011, ed. ACTS press. doi: 10.2316/P.2011.731-015
- Kindzierski, W.B., P. Chelma-Ayala, and M. Gamel El-Din. 2009. Wood Buffalo Environmental Association Ambient Air Quality Data Summary and Trend Analysis. Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta, School of Public Health.
- MacEachern, C. 2010. The Wood Buffalo Environmental Association: Monitoring in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Alberta Canada. In Air and Waste Management Association Annual Conference and Exhibition, Vol. 2, 1416–20. Extended Abstract 2010-A-1194-AWMA. Annual Conference and Exhibition. Calgary. June 22-25, 2010.
- Marson, G. 2015. Better estimates of geography-based emissions from the oil sands. Presented at AEMERA Oil Sands Monitoring Symposium, Edmonton, February 24-25, 2015.
- Mayer, H. 1999. Air pollution in cities. Atmos. Environ. 33:4029–4037. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00144-2.
- McHugh, M.L. 2009. The odds ratio: Calculation, usage and interpretation. Biochem. Med. 19:120–126. doi: 10.11613/BM.2009.011.
- McLinden, C. A., V. Fioletov, N. A. Krotkov, C. Li, K. F. Boersma, and C. Adams. 2016. A decade of change in NO2 and SO2 over the Canadian Oil Sands as seen from space. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:331–337. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04985.
- Milionis, A.E., and T.D. Davies. 1994. Regression and stochastic models for air pollution—I. Review, comments and suggestions. Atmos. Environ. 28:2801–10. doi: 10.1016/1352-2310(94)90083-3.
- Nachar, N. 2008. The Mann-Whitney U: A Test for Assessing Whether Two Independent Samples Come from the Same Distribution. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psych. 4(1):13–20. doi: 10.20982/tqmp.04.1.p013.
- Nagata, Y. 2003. Measurement of Odor Threshold by Triangle Odor Bag Method. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Ministry of the Environment. http://cschi.cz/odour/files/world/Measurement%20of%20odor%20threshold%20by%20Triangle%20Odor%20Bag%20Method.pdf.(accessed February 12, 2017).
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Earth Systems Research Laboratory Monitoring Division. 2017 February 5. Trends in Atmospheric Methane. https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends_ch4/ ( accessed February 21, 2017).
- O’Brien, R.J., K.E. Percy, and A.H. Legge. 2012. Co-measurement of volatile organic and sulphur compounds in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region by duel detector pneumatic focusing gas chromatography. In Alberta Oil Sands Energy, Industry and the Environment, ed. K.E. Percy, 113–44. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
- Percy, K.E., M.C. Hansen, and T. Dann. 2012. Air quality in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region 2011. In Alberta Oil Sands Energy, Industry and the Environment, ed. K. E. Percy, 47–91. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
- Pohlert, T. 2017. Trend: Non-parametric trend tests and change-point detection. R package version 1.0.0. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=trend. (accessed August 27, 2017).
- Pope III, C.A., and D.W. Dockery. 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air: Lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 56:709–42. doi: 10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485.
- R Core Team. 2014. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
- Sackett, D.L., J.J. Deeks, and D.G. Altman. 1996. Down with odds ratios!. Evid. Based Med. 1:164–6.
- Small, C.C., S. Cho, Z. Hashisho, and A.C. Ulrich. 2015. Emissions from oil sands tailings ponds: Review of tailings pond parameters and emission estimates. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 127:490–501. doi: 10.1016/j.petrol.2014.11.020.
- Spink, D. 2009. An Assessment of Air Quality in Fort McKay in 2008: Based on Health Canada’s Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) and Fort McKay’s related Community AQHI Criteria. Appendix 2.2 Air Quality Fort McKay Specific Assessment (June 2010). https://landuse.alberta.ca/Forms%20and%20Applications/FMFN%20-%20Application%20App%2014%20O%202%20App%202-2%20Air%20Qual%20FtMcKay_2014-03-05_PUBLIC.pdf. (accessed June 2017).
- Spink, D.R., and R.C. Abel. 2015. Development of Alberta’s oil sands: The Fort McKay First Nation’s perspective on environmental management. In Innovating Environmental Compliance Assurance, ed. M. De Bree and H. Ruessink, 227–53. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement. https://www.rsm.nl/about-rsm/news/detail/5254/. (accessed March 6, 2017)
- Statistics Canada. 2015 November 27. NHS Profile. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=4816859&Data=Count&SearchText=Fort%20Mackay&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=All&B1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=4816859&TABID=1. (accessed February 4, 2017).
- Suncor Energy. 2005. Suncor archived annual reports. http://www.suncor.com/pdf/ic-annualreport2005-e.pdf (accessed November 6, 2016).
- Suncor Energy. 2009. 2009 Report on Sustainability. http://sustainability.suncor.com/2009/default.aspx. (accessed November 6, 2016).
- Suncor Energy. 2015 September. Meadow Creek East application and supporting files. http://www.suncor.com/en/about/5559.aspx. (accessed November 6, 2016).
- Szumilas, M. 2010. Explaining odds ratios. J. Can. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 19:227–9.
- Teck Resources Limited. 2015a June. Project update (Volume 2 Section 11). Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project. http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/document-eng.cfm?document=101878 ( accessed February 18, 2017).
- Teck Resources Limited. 2015a June. Frontier Mine Project, Vol. 3, Appendix 12A. Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. http://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/documents/p65505/101933E.pdf ( accessed February 18, 2017).
- Teck Resources Limited. 2016 June 5. CEAA project update. http://www.ceaa.gc.ca/050/documents/p65505/101942E.pdf ( accessed April 2, 2017).
- Trace Metal Air Contaminants Working Group. 2001. Review and Assessment of the Deposition and Potential Bioaccumulation of Trace Metal. Prepared by Dillon Consulting Limited for the Trace Metal Air Contaminants Working Group, Cumualtive Environmental Management Association, Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada.
- Trace Metals Air Contaminant Working Group. 2003. A Priority Ranking of Air Emissions in the Oil Sands Region. Prepared by Clearstone Engineering Ltd. and Golder and Associates Ltd. for the Trace Metals Air Contaminant Working Group, Cumulative Environmental Management Association, Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. Integrated Science Assessment for Sulfur Dioxide—Health Criteria. EPA/600/R-08/047f. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-sulfur-dioxide-health-criteria (accessed March 13, 2016).
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. 2009 Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter. EPA/600/R-08/139F. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-particulate-matter (accessed March 13, 2016).
- US Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Integrated Science Assessment Carbon Monoxide. EPA/600/R-09/019F. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-carbon-monoxide ( accessed March 13, 2016).
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2013. 2013 Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-ozone ( accessed March 13, 2016).
- Wang, X., J.C. Chow, S.D. Kohl, L. Narasimha, R. Yatavelli, K.E. Percy, A.H. Legge, and J.G. Watson. 2015b. Wind erosion potential for fugitive dust sources in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region. Aeolian Res. 18:121–34. doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2015.07.004.
- Wang, X., J.C. Chow, S.D. Kohl, K.E. Percy, A.H. Legge, and J.G. Watson. 2015a. Characterization of PM2.5 and PM10 fugitive dust source profiles in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 65:1421–33. doi: 10.1080/10962247.2015.1100693.
- Weatherhead, E.C., G.C. Reinsal, G.C. Tiao, Z.L. Meng, D. Choi, W.K. Cheang, T. Keller, et al., 1998. Factors affecting the detection of trends: Statistical considerations and applications to environmental data. J. Geophys. Res. 103(D14):17149–61. doi: 10.1029/98JD00995.
- Wood Buffalo Environmental Association. 2009. Annual Report. Wood Buffalo Environmental Association. http://wbea.org/download/wbea_2009_annual_report.pdf. (accessed October 10, 2016).
- Wood Bufffalo Environmental Association. 2013. Annual Report. Wood Bufffalo Environmental Association. http://wbea.org/download/wbea_2013_annual_report.pdf. (accessed October 10, 2016).
- Wood Buffalo Environmental Association. http://wbea.org/download/wbea_2009_annual_report.pdf. (accessed October 10, 2016)2016 August 19. E-mail communication—Sanjay Prasad. Wood Buffalo Environmental Association (WBEA), Fort McMurray, Alberta.
- World Health Organization. 2000. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, 2nd ed. WHO Regional Publications. European Series; No. 91. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/74732/E71922.pdf ( accessed March 13, 2016).
- World Health Organization. 2006. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe. http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/outdoorair_aqg/en/ (accessed March 13, 2016).
- World Health Organization. 2013. Review of Evidence on Health Aspects of Air Pollution—REVIHAAP Project: Technical Report. Bonn, Germany: WHO Regional Office for Europe. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/air-quality/publications/2013/review-of-evidence-on-health-aspects-of-air-pollution-revihaap-project-final-technical-report (accessed June 23, 2017).
- Wu, Z., N.E. Huang, S.R. Long, and C.K. Peng. 2007. On the trend, detrending, and variability of nonlinear and nonstationary time series. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 104:14889–94. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0701020104.
- Xu, W., M. Gamel El-Din, and W.B. Kindzierski. 2006. Trend analysis of historical ambient air monitoring data in Edmonton and Fort McKay, Alberta. Presented at Air & Waste Management Association’s (A&WMA) 99th Conference & Exhibition, New Orleans, June 20-23, 2006.
- Yue, S., and C.Y. Wang. 2002. The influence of serial correlation on the Mann–Whitney to detect a shift in median. Adv. Water Resourc. 25:325–33. doi: 10.1016/S0309-1708(01)00049-5.
- Zhang, Y., W. Shotyk, C. Zaccone, T. Noernberg, R. Pelletier, B. Bicalho, D.G. Froese, L. Davies, and J.W. Martin. 2016. Airborne petcoke dust is a major source of polycyclic aromatic carbons in the Athabasca Oil sands region. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:1711–20. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05092.