Characterization of the incipient smoke point for steam-/air-assisted and nonassisted flares

References

• Aerodyne Research, Inc. 2010. APPENDIX aerodyne research mobile laboratory particulate measurements TCEQ 2010 flare study. Billerica, MA: Aerodyne Research, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, D. T., and V. M. Torres. 2011a. TCEQ 2010 flare study final report. Austin, Texas: University of Texas at Austin.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, D. T., and V. M. Torres. 2011b. 2010 flare study final appendices. https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/implementation/air/rules/Flare/2010flarestudy/2010-flare-study-final-appendices.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Beer’s Law. 2017. Accessed January 12, 2018. http://teaching.shu.ac.uk/hwb/chemistry/tutorials/molspec/beers1.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Bubbico, R., G. Dusserre, and B. Mazzarotta. 2016. Calculation of the flame size from burning liquid pools. Chem. Eng. Trans. 53:67–72. doi:10.3303/CET1653012.
   Google Scholar
• Cade, R., and S. Evans. 2010. Performance test of a steam-assisted elevated flare with passive FTIR. Chicago, Illinois: Clean Air Engineering.
   Google Scholar
• Castiñeira, D., and T. F. Edgar. 2006. CFD for simulation of steam-assisted and air-assisted flare combustion systems. Energy Fuels 20 (3):1044–1056. doi:10.1021/ef050332v.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou, C. C. K., W. N. Chen, S. Y. Chang, and T. K. Chen. 2005. Specific absorption cross-section and elemental carbon content of urban aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 (21):1–4. doi:10.1029/2005GL024301.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coderre, A. R., K. A. Thomson, D. R. Snelling, and M. R. Johnson. 2011. Spectrally resolved light absorption properties of cooled soot from a methane flame. Appl. Phys. B Lasers Opt. 104 (1):175–188. doi:10.1007/s00340-011-4448-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colbeck, I., B. Atkinson, and Y. Johar. 1997. The morphology and optical properties of soot produced by different fuels. J. Aerosol Sci. 28 (5):715–723. doi:10.1016/S0021-8502(96)00466-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, D., and F. C. Alley. 2002. Air pollution control : A design approach. 3rd ed. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Corbin, D. J., and M. R. Johnson. 2014a. Interim report : Summary of flare efficiency and soot emission rate measurement results to date at Carleton University energy & emissions research lab. Introduction Test. Overview (582):1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Corbin, D. J., and M. R. Johnson. 2014b. Detailed expressions and methodologies for measuring flare combustion efficiency, species emission rates, and associated uncertainties. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53 (49):19359–19369. doi:10.1021/ie502914k.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta, A. 2008. Process engineering and design using visual basic. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• ENVIRON. 2008. Cost analysis of HRVOC controls on polymer plants and contents. Houston, TX: ENVIRON International Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• ETA. 2013. Visible emissions observer training manual, no. June. Garner, NC: Eastern Technical Associates, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Fortner, E. C., W. A. Brooks, T. B. Onasch, M. R. Canagaratna, P. Massoli, J. T. Jayne, J. P. Franklin, W. B. Knighton, J. Wormhoudt, D. R. Worsnop, C. E. Kolb, and S. C. Herndon. 2012. Particulate emissions measured during the TCEQ comprehensive flare emission study. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (39):12586–12592. doi:10.1021/ie202692y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fry, C. R., J. Coburn, R. T. I. International, A. Bouchard, B. Shine, and E. P. A. Oaqps. 2012. No title. Research Triangle Park, NC.
   Google Scholar
• Fuller, K. A., and S. M. Kreidenweis. 1999. Effects of mixing on extinction by carbonaceous particles. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1998):941–954. doi:10.1029/1998JD100069.
   Google Scholar
• Gallik, S. 2011. Transmittance and absorbance. Cell Biology OLM. Accessed March 29, 2017. http://cellbiologyolm.stevegallik.org/node/7.
   Google Scholar
• Gogolek, P., A. Caverly, R. Schwarts, D. Seebold, and J. Pohl. 2010. Emissions from elevated flares–a survey of the literature, 88. Ottawa, Ontario: CanmetENERGY.
   Google Scholar
• Jäger, C., T. Henning, R. Schlögl, and O. Spillecke. 1999. Spectral properties of carbon black. J. Non. Cryst. Solids 258 (1):161–179. doi:10.1016/S0022-3093(99)00436-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung, Y., K. C. Oh, C. Bae, and H. D. Shin. 2012. The effect of oxygen enrichment on incipient soot particles in inverse diffusion flames. Fuel 102:199–207. Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2012.05.047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalizov, A. F., H. Xue, L. Wang, J. Zheng, R. Zhang, A. F. Khalizov, H. Xue, L. Wang, J. Zheng, and R. Zhang. 2009. Enhanced light absorption and scattering by carbon soot aerosol internally mixed with sulfuric acid enhanced light absorption and scattering by carbon soot aerosol internally mixed with sulfuric acid. 1066–1074. doi: 10.1021/jp807531n.
   Google Scholar
• Knighton, W. B., S. C. Herndon, J. F. Franklin, E. C. Wood, J. Wormhoudt, W. Brooks, E. C. Fortner, and D. T. Allen. 2012. Direct measurement of volatile organic compound emissions from industrial flares using real-time online techniques: Proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry and tunable infrared laser differential absorption spectroscopy. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (39):12674–12684. doi:10.1021/ie202695v.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korppoo, A. 2018. Russian associated petroleum gas flaring limits: Interplay of formal and informal institutions. Energy Policy 116 (May 2012):232–241. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.02.005.
   Google Scholar
• Lapuerta, M., F. J. Martos, and M. D. Cárdenas. 2005. Determination of light extinction efficiency of diesel soot from smoke opacity measurements. Meas. Sci. Technol. 16 (10):2048–2055. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/16/10/021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazaridis, M. 2010. Atmospheric aerosols. In First principles of meteorology and air pollution, eds. B. J. Alloway and J. T. Trevors, chap. 5, 183. New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Li, L., and P. B. Sunderland. 2013. Smoke points of fuel-fuel and fuel-inert mixtures. Fire Saf. J. 61:226–231. Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linteris, G. T., and I. P. Rafferty. 2008. Flame size, heat release, and smoke points in materials flammability. Fire Saf. J. 43 (6):442–450. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2007.11.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LSC environmental products.2011. Combustion efficiency and regulatory compliance of cf-10 landfill gas flares. Apalachin, NY.
   Google Scholar
• McAllister, S., J.-Y. Chen, and A. C. Fernandez-Pello. 2011. Fundam. Combust. Processes. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-7943-8.
   Google Scholar
• Optical Properties. 2018. Accessed February 19, 2018. https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/wp-content/uploads/files/user_files/pag/lecture2008/lecture3.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Orloff, L., and J. De Ris. 1982. Froude modeling of pool fires. Symp. Combust. 19 (1):885–895. doi:10.1016/S0082-0784(82)80264-6.
   Google Scholar
• Pilat, M. J., and D. S. Ensor. 1970. Plume opacity and particle mass concentration. Atmospheic Environ. 4:163–173. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(70)90006-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohl, J. H., R. Payne, and J. Lee. 1984. Evaluation of the efficiency of industrial flares: Test results. U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development.
   Google Scholar
• Rahimpour, M. R., and S. M. Jokar. 2012. Feasibility of flare gas reformation to practical energy in farashband gas refinery: No gas flaring. J. Hazard. Mater 209–210 (x):204–217. Elsevier B.V. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.01.017.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rashbash, D. J., G. Ramachandran, B. Kandola, J. M. Watts, and M. Law. 2004. Evaluation of fire safety. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Ruggeri, D. 2004. No title. https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/permitting/air/memos/flareparameters.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Schnaiter, M., C. Linke, O. Möhler, K. H. Naumann, H. Saathoff, R. Wagner, U. Schurath, and B. Wehner. 2005. Absorption amplification of black carbon internally mixed with secondary organic Aerosol. J. Geophys. Res. D Atmos. 110 (19):1–11. doi:10.1029/2005JD006046.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, R., J. White, and W. Bussman. 2001. In The John Zink combustion handbook, eds. C. E. J. Baukal and R. Schwartz (630–631). New York, NY: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, K. D., P. Gangadharan, T. Dabade, V. Shinde, D. Chen, H. H. Lou, P. C. Richmond, and X. Li. 2014. Parametric study of ethylene flare operations using numerical simulation. Eng. Appl. Comput. Fluid Mech. 8 (2):211–228. doi:10.1080/19942060.2014.11015508.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, K. D., T. Dabade, H. Vaid, P. Gangadharan, D. Chen, H. H. Lou, X. Li, K. Li, and C. B. Martin. 2012. Computational fluid dynamics modeling of industrial flares operated in stand-by mode. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 51 (39):12611–12620. doi:10.1021/ie300639f.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stockham, J., and H. Betz. 1971. Study of visible exhaust smoke from aircraft jet engines. FAA-RD-71-22. IIT Research Institute. doi:10.4271/710428.
   Google Scholar
• Stohl, A., Z. Klimont, S. Eckhardt, K. Kupiainen, V. P. Shevchenko, V. M. Kopeikin, and A. N. Novigatsky. 2013. Black carbon in the arctic: The underestimated role of gas flaring and residential combustion emissions. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (17):8833–8855. doi:10.5194/acp-13-8833-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TCEQ. 2016. Accessed February 20, 2016. https://www.tceq.texas.gov/airquality/stationary-rules/voc/hrvoc.html.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. 2002. Air pollution control technology fact sheet, 1–4. doi: 10.1044/1059-0889(2002/er01).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. 2012. Enforcement alert. Accessed March 31, 2018. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/flaringviolations.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. 2015. Part II. Vol. 80. http://www3.epa.gov/airtoxics/petrefine/RefineryRTR2060-AQ75Final_9-28-15disclaimer.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. 2017. Visible emissions regulations. Accessed May 1, 2018. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-11/documents/chapt-05-2017.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA, and OAQPS. 2012. Parameters for properly designed and operated flares, Report for Flare Review Panel, U.S.  EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS), Washington, DC., April 2012.
   Google Scholar
• UNL. 2008. Safe operating procedure. ( 402):13–16.
   Google Scholar
• US Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Volume 1: Stationary point and area sources. AP 42. Compil. Air Pollut. Emiss. Factors 1:13.5-1–13.5-5.
   Google Scholar
• Weingartner, E., H. Saathoff, M. Schnaiter, N. Streit, B. Bitnar, and U. Baltensperger. 2003. Absorption of light by soot particles: Determination of the absorption coefficient by means of aethalometers. J. Aerosol Sci. 34 (10):1445–1463. doi:10.1016/S0021-8502(03)00359-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2018. No title. Accessed May 23, 2018. http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/gasflaringreduction#7.
   Google Scholar
• Xin, Y. 2014. Estimation of chemical heat release rate in rack storage fires based on flame volume. Fire Saf. J. 63:29–36. Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuen, A. C. Y., G. H. Yeoh, V. Timchenko, T. B. Y. Chen, Q. N. Chan, C. Wang, and D. D. Li. 2017. Comparison of detailed soot formation models for sooty and non-sooty flames in an under-ventilated ISO room. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 115:717–729. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.08.074.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeng, Y., J. Morris, and M. Dombrowski. 2016. Validation of a new method for measuring and continuously monitoring the efficiency of industrial flares. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 66 (1):76–86. doi:10.1080/10962247.2015.1114045.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang, X., L. Hu, Q. Wang, X. Zhang, and P. Gao. 2015. A mathematical model for flame volume estimation based on flame height of turbulent gaseous fuel jet. Energy Convers. Manag 103:276–283. Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.06.061.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zolfaghari, M., V. Pirouzfar, and H. Sakhaeinia. 2017. Technical characterization and economic evaluation of recovery of flare gas in various gas-processing plants. Energy 124:481–491. Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.02.084.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar