REFERENCES
- Andersen, K. (2017). Fantasyland: How America went haywire: A 500-year history. New York, NY: Random House.
- Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211
- Allen, J. (2018, February 2). Experts warn: Dangerous politicizing of U.S. intelligence. NBC News. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/experts-warn-dangerous-politicizing-u-s-intelligence-n844211
- Baker, J. E. (2010). Covert action: United States law in substance, process, and practice. In L. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of national security intelligence (pp. 587–607). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195375886.003.0036
- Bakir, V., & McStay, A. (2017). Fake news and the economy of emotions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 154–175. doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645
- Barry, J. A. (1993). Covert action can be just. Orbis, 37(3), 375–390. doi:10.1016/0030-4387(93)90152-3
- Beinart, P. (2018, July 22). The U.S. needs to face up to its long history of election meddling. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/07/the-us-has-a-long-history-of-election-meddling/565538/
- Beitz, C. R. (2005). Covert intervention as a moral problem. In J. Goldman (Ed.), The ethics of spying: A reader for the intelligence professional (pp. 206–220). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
- Bittman, L. (1990). The use of disinformation by democracies. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 4(2), 243–261. doi:10.1080/08850609008435142
- Bodine-Baron, E., Helmus, T. C., Radin, A., & Treyger, E. (2018). Countering Russian social medial influence. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. doi:10.7249/RR2740
- Boghardt, T. (2009). Operation INFEKTION: Soviet bloc intelligence and its AIDS disinformation campaign. Studies in Intelligence, 53(4), 1–24. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol53no4/soviet-bloc-intelligence-and-its-aids.html
- Brantly, A. F. (2014). Cyber actions by state actors: Motivation and utility. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 27(3), 465–484. doi:10.1080/08850607.2014.900291
- Calabresi, M. (2017, May 29). Inside Russia’s social media war on America. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/4783932/inside-russia-social-media-war-america
- Conley, H. A., & Jeangene Vilmer, J. (2018). Successfully countering Russian electoral interference. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies. Retrieved from https://www.csis.org/analysis/successfully-countering-russian-electoral-interference
- Conroy, N. J., Rubin, V. L., & Chen, Y. (2015). Automatic deception detection: Methods for finding fake news. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 52(1), 1–4. doi:10.1002/pra2.2015.145052010082
- Currie, J. T. (1998). Iran‐contra and Congressional oversight of the CIA. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 11(2), 185–210. doi:10.1080/08850609808435372
- Daugherty, W. J. (2004). Approval and review of covert action programs since Reagan. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 17(1), 62–80. doi:10.1080/088506004902525669
- Downes, A. B., & Lilley, M. L. (2010). Overt peace, covert war? Covert intervention and the democratic peace. Security Studies, 19(2), 266–306. doi:10.1080/09636411003795756
- Fabre, C. (2018). The case for foreign electoral subversion. Ethics & International Affairs, 32(3), 283–292. doi:10.1017/S0892679418000424
- Feldman, R. (2009). The liar in your life: The way to truthful relationships. New York, NY: Twelve.
- Fitzgerald, C. W., & Brantly, A. F. (2017). Subverting reality: The role of propaganda in 21st century intelligence. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 30(2), 215–240. doi:10.1080/08850607.2017.1263528
- Freedom House (2018). Freedom in the world 2018: Democracy in crisis. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018
- Goodman, M. A. (2000). Espionage and covert action. In C. Eisendrath (Ed.), National insecurity: U.S. intelligence after the Cold War (pp. 23–44). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/book/9758
- Hastedt, G. (2017). The CIA and Congressional oversight: Learning and forgetting lessons. Intelligence and National Security, 32(6), 710–724. doi:10.1080/02684527.2016.1275137
- Hedahl, M., Clark, S., & Beggins, M. (2017). The changing nature of the just war tradition: How our changing environment ought to change the foundations of just war theory. Public Integrity, 19(5), 429–443. doi:10.1080/10999922.2017.1278667
- Johnson, L. K. (1989). Covert action and accountability: Decision-making for America’s secret foreign policy. International Studies Quarterly, 33(1), 81–109. doi:10.2307/2600495
- Johnson, L. K. (1992). On drawing a bright line for covert operations. American Journal of International Law, 86(2), 284–309. doi:10.2307/2203235
- Just Security. (n.d.). Norms watch. Retrieved from https://www.justsecurity.org/tag/norms-watch
- Kahne, J., & Bowyer, B. (2017). Educating for democracy in a partisan age: Confronting challenges of motivated reasoning and misinformation. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1), 3–34. doi:10.3102/0002831216679817
- Kessler, G., Rizzo, S., & Kelly, M. (2018, August 1). President Trump has made 4,229 false or misleading claims in 558 days. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2018/08/01/president-trump-has-made-4229-false-or-misleading-claims-in-558-days
- Kibbe, J. D. (2010). Covert action. In The Oxford research encyclopedia of international studies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.135
- Levin, D. H. (2016). When the great powers get a vote: The effects of great power electoral interventions on election results. International Studies Quarterly, 60(2), 189–202. doi:10.1093/isq/sqv016
- Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. doi:10.1177/1529100612451018
- Lowenthal, M. M. (2017). Intelligence: From secrets to policy (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press.
- McClintock, B. (2017, July 21). Russian information warfare: A reality that needs a response. RAND. Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/blog/2017/07/russian-information-warfare-a-reality-that-needs-a.html
- Meserole, C. (2018, May 9). How misinformation spreads on social media—and what to do about it. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/05/09/how-misinformation-spreads-on-social-media-and-what-to-do-about-it
- Nincic, M. (2003). Information warfare and democratic accountability. Contemporary Security Policy, 24(1), 140–160. doi:10.1080/13523260312331271849
- Omand, D., & Phythian, M. (2013). Ethics and intelligence: A debate. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 26(1), 38–63. doi:10.1080/08850607.2012.705186
- Perry, D. L. (2009). Partly cloudy: Ethics in war, espionage, covert action, and interrogation. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
- Peters, M. A. (2017). Education in a post-truth world. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 49(6), 563–566. doi:10.1080/00131857.2016.1264114
- Polyakova, A. (2018, March 22). The next Russian attack will be far worse than bots and trolls. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/03/22/the-next-russian-attack-will-be-far-worse-than-bots-and-trolls
- Polyakova, A., & Gonzalez, G. (2018, August 7). Why the U.S. anti-smoking campaign is a great model for fighting disinformation. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/08/07/why-the-u-s-anti-smoking-campaign-is-a-great-model-for-fighting-disinformation
- Poznansky, M. (2015). Stasis or decay? Reconciling covert war and the democratic peace. International Studies Quarterly, 59(4), 815–826. Retrieved from https://www.isanet.org/Publications/ISQ/Posts/ID/4740/Stasis-or-Decay-Reconciling-Covert-War-and-the-Democratic-Peace
- Prados, J. (2006). Safe for democracy: The secret wars of the CIA. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee.
- Rose, J. (2017). Brexit, Trump, and post-truth politics. Public Integrity, 19(6), 555–558. doi:10.1080/10999922.2017.1285540
- Rudesill, D. S. (2018, August 29). Trump’s secret order on pulling the cyber trigger. Lawfare. Retrieved from https://www.lawfareblog.com/trumps-secret-order-pulling-cyber-trigger
- Steiner, J. (2006). Restoring the red line between intelligence and policy on covert action. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 19(1), 156–165. doi:10.1080/08850600500332532
- Sternstein, A. (2017, March 24). Estonia’s lessons for fighting Russian disinformation. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Passcode/2017/0324/Estonia-s-lessons-for-fighting-Russian-disinformation
- Stout, M. (2017). Covert action in the age of social media. Georgetown Review of International Affairs, 18(2), 94–103. doi:10.1353/gia.2017.0024
- Treverton, G. F. (2007). Covert action: Forward to the past? In L. K. Johnson (Ed.), Strategic intelligence volume 3: Covert action (pp. 1–21). Westport, CT: Praeger Security International.
- Warzel, C. (2018, February 11). He predicted the 2016 fake news crisis. Now he’s worried about an information apocalypse. BuzzFeed News. Retrieved from https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/charliewarzel/the-terrifying-future-of-fake-news
- Wineburg, S., McGrew, S., Breakstone, J., & Ortega, T. (2016). Evaluating information: The cornerstone of civic online reasoning. Stanford Digital Repository. Retrieved from https://purl.stanford.edu/fv751yt5934
- Woodward, B. (2018). Fear: Trump in the White House. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
- Zakaria, T. (2002, February 25). U.S. planting false stories common Cold War tactic. Reuters. Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/news/2002/02/re022502.html
- Zegart, A., & Quinn, J. (2010). Congressional intelligence oversight: The electoral disconnection. Intelligence and National Security, 25(6), 744–766. doi:10.1080/02684527.2010.537871