Ruolo dei parametri di farmacocinetica e farmacodinamica nella prevenzione della selezione e dello sviluppo di resistenza agli antibiotici: la “Concentrazione di Prevenzione della Mutazione”

Bibliografia

• Blondeau JM. Community-acquired respiratory tract pathogens and increasing antimicrobial resistance. J Infect Dis Pharmacother 2001; 4 (Suppl.2):1–28.
   Google Scholar
• Schentag JJ, Gilliland KK, Paladino JA. What have we learned from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic theories? Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32 (Suppl.1): S39–46.
   Google Scholar
• Forrest A, Nix Dl, Ballow CH, Goss TF, Birmingham MC, Schentag JJ. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37:1073–1081.
   Google Scholar
• Lacy MK, Lu W, Xu X, et al. Pharmacodynamic comparisons of levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin and ampicillin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro model of infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43:672–677.
   Google Scholar
• Pangrazzi G, et al. Can a quinolone therapeutic interchange program induce class resistance? ASHP Midyear 1999; 34: P-271R.
   Google Scholar
• Rifenburg RP, Paladino JA, Bhavnani SM, Haese DD, Schentag JJ. Influence of fluoroquinolone purchasing patterns on antimicrobial expenditures and Pseudomonas aeruginosa susceptibility. Am J Health-System Pharmacists 1999; 56 (21): 2217–2223.
   Google Scholar
• Polk RE. Trends in fluoroquinolone (FG) prescribing in 35 US Hospitals and resistance for P. aeruginosa: a SCOPEMMIT report., Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 2001. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, DC. Abstract UL-1.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson LR, Postelnick M, Pozdol TL, Reisberg B, Noskin GA. Management of fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa - outcome of monitored use in a referral hospital. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1998; 10 (3):207- 214.
   Google Scholar
• Iannini PB. Influence of fluoroquinolone usage of ciprofloxacin resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 3rd International Meeting on Antimicrobial Chemotherapy in Clinical Practice, Santa Margherita Ligure, October 16–19, 2003. Abstract #11.
   Google Scholar
• Mohr J, Jones A, Tillotson GS. Impact of antimicrobial usage on susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa over an eight-year period at a community-based teaching hospital. 3rd International Meeting on Antimicrobial Chemotherapy in Clinical Practice, Santa Margherita Ligure, October 16–19, 2003. Abstract #32.
   Google Scholar
• Drlica K, Schmitz FJ. Therapeutic options in an era of decreasing antimicrobial susceptibility. J Chemother 2002; 14 (Suppl. 2): 5–12.
   Google Scholar
• Chen DK, McGeer A, De Azavedo J, Low DE. Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 233- 239.
   Google Scholar
• Hooper DC. Expanding uses of fluoroquinolones: opportunities and challenges. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 908–910.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao X, Xu C, Domagala J, Drlica K. DNA topoisomerase targets of the fluoroquinolones: a strategy for avoiding bacterial resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:13991–13996.
   Google Scholar
• Dalhoff A, Heidtmann M, Obertegger S, Hesse D. Lack of in vivo emergence of resistance against Bay 12-8039 in Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. 8th International Conference on Infectious Diseases, Boston, MS, May 15-18, 1998. Abstract 124.
   Google Scholar
• Bhavnani SM, Hammel JP, Jones RN, Ambrose PG. Relationship between increased levofloxacin (LEV) use and decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP): report from the arrest program., 3rd International Meeting on Antimicrobial Chemotherapy in Clinical Practice, Santa Margherita Ligure, October 16-19, 2003. Abstract #35.
   Google Scholar
• Gootz TD, Brighty KE. Chemistry and mechanism of action of the quinolone antibacterials. In: Andriole VT, ed. The Quinolones. London, England: Academic Press Limited, 1998: 29–80.
   Google Scholar
• Kato H, Nishimura Y, Imamura R, Niki H, Hiraga S, Suzuki H. New topoisomerase essential for chromosome segregation in E.coli. Cell 1990; 63: 393–404.
   Google Scholar
• Marians KJ. Replication fork progression. In: Neidhardt FC, ed. E. coli and Salmonella Cellular and Molecular Biology. Vol. 1. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1996:74–763.
   Google Scholar
• Gellert M, Muzuuchi K, O’Dea MH, Itoh T, Tomizawa J. Nalidixic acid resistance: A second genetic character involved in DNA gyrase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1977; 74: 4772–4776.
   Google Scholar
• Sugino A, Peebles CL, Kruezer KN, Cozzarelli NR. Mechanism of action of nalidixic acid: Purification of Escherichia coli nalA gene product and its relationship to DNA gyrase and a novel nicking-closing enzyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1977; 74: 4767–4771.
   Google Scholar
• Oram M, Fisher LM. 4-Quinolone resistance mutations in the DNA gyrase of Escherichia coli clinical isolates identified by using the polymerase chain reaction. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 387–389.
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell A. The molecular basis of quinolone action. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 30: 409–414.
   Google Scholar
• Hallett P, Maxwell A. Novel quinolone resistance mutations of the Escherichia coli DNA gyrase A protein: Enzymatic analysis of mutant proteins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 335–340.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrero L, Cameron B, Crouzet J. Analysis of gyrA and grlA mutations in stepwise-selected ciprofloxacin-resistant mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39:1554–1558.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrero L, Cameron B, Manse B, et al. Cloning and primary structure of Staphylococcus aureus DNA topoisomerase IV: A primary target of fluoroquinolones. Molecular Microbiology 1994; 13:641–653.
   Google Scholar
• Pan X, Ambler J, Mehtar S, Fisher LM. Involvement of topoisomerase IV and DNA gyrase as ciprofloxacin targets in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1996; 40:2321–2326.
   Google Scholar
• Gootz TD, Zaniewski L, Haskell S, et al. Activity of the new fluoroquinolone trovafloxacin (CP-99,219) against DNA gyrase and topopisomerase IV mutants of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 2691–2697.
   Google Scholar
• Pan X, Fisher ML. Targeting of DNA gyrase in Streptococcus pneumoniae by sparfloxacin: Selective targeting of gyrase or topoisomerase IV by quinolones. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 471–474.
   Google Scholar
• Pan X, Fisher LM. DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV are dual targets of clinafloxacin action in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 2810- 2816.
   Google Scholar
• Drlica K, Malik M. Fluoroquinolones: action and resistance. Curr Topics Med Chem 2003; 3:1349–1364.
   Google Scholar
• Hooper DC. Mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance. Drug Resistance Updates 1999; 2: 38–55.
   Google Scholar
• Kishii R, Takei M, Fukuda H, Hayashi K, Hosaka M. Contribution of the 8-methoxy group to the activity of gatifloxacin against Type II topoisomerase of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (1):77–81.
   Google Scholar
• Heaton VJ, Ambler J, Fisher LM. Potent antipneumococcal activity of gemifloxacin is associated with dual targeting of gyrase and topoisomerase IV, an in vivo target preference for gyrase, and enhanced stabilization of cleavable complexes in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44 (11): 3112- 3117.
   Google Scholar
• Nightingale CH. Moxifloxacin, a new antibiotic designed to treat community-acquired respiratory tract infections: a review of microbiologic and pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic characteristics. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20 (3): 245–256.
   Google Scholar
• Tillotson GS, Watson SJ. Moxifloxacin: from A (Antimicrobial) to Z (Zwitterion) - a new 8 methoxyquinolone. Antibiotiques 2000; 2:185–194.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM, Zhao X, Hansen G, Drlica K. Mutant prevention concentration of fluoroquinolones for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 433–438.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen G, Metzler KL, Drlica K, Blondeau JM. Mutant prevention concentration of gemifloxacin for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (1): 440–441.
   Google Scholar
• Fukuda H, Hiramatsu K. Primary targets of fluoroquinolones in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43: 410–412.
   Google Scholar
• Janoir C, Keller V, Kitzis MD, Moreau NJ, Gutmann L. High level fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae require mutations in parC and gyrA. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 2760–2764.
   Google Scholar
• Munoz R, de la Campa AG. ParC subunit of DNA topoisomerase IV of Streptococcus pneumoniae is a primary target of fluoroquinolones and cooperates with DNA gyraseA subunit in forming resistant phenotype. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 40: 2252–2257.
   Google Scholar
• Pan XS, Fisher LM. Cloning and characterization of the parC and parE genes of Streptococcus pneumoniae encoding DNA topoisomerase IV: role in fluoroquinolone resistance. J Bacteriol 1996; 178: 4060–4069.
   Google Scholar
• Perichon B, Tankovic J, Courvalin P. Characterization of a mutation in the parE gene that confers fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1166–1167.
   Google Scholar
• Tankovic J, Perichon B, Duval J, Courvalin P. Contribution of mutations in the gyrA and parC genes to fluoroquinolone resistance of mutants of Streptococcus pneumoniae obtained in vivo and in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 2502–2510.
   Google Scholar
• Smith HJ, Nichol KA, Hoban DJ, Zhanel GG. Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae: the facts behind the claims. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49: 893–895.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher LM, Heaton VJ. Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51: 463–464.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher LM, Gould KA, Pan X-S, Patel S, Heaton VJ. Analysis of dual active fluoroquinolones in Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 52: 312–316.
   Google Scholar
• Smith H, Nichol KA, Hoban DJ, et al. Dual activity of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae: reply. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51: 464–465.
   Google Scholar
• Brueggemann AB, Coffman SL, Rhomberg PR, et al. Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in United States since 1994–1995. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 80–88.
   Google Scholar
• Zhanel GG, Walkty A, Nichol KA, Smith H, Noreddin A, Hoban DJ. Molecular characterization of fluoroquinolone resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates obtained from across Canada. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 45: 63–67.
   Google Scholar
• National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Methods for ilution antimicrobial susceptibility tests for bacteria that grow erobically (M7-A6). National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, 2003.
   Google Scholar
• Dong Y, Zhao X, Domagala J, Drlica K. Effect of fluoroquinolone concentration on selection of resistant mutants of Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999; 43:1756–1758.
   Google Scholar
• Allen GP. The mutant prevention concentration (MPC): A Review. J Infect Dis Pharmacother 2003; 6 (1): 27–47.
   Google Scholar
• Bingen E, Lambert-Zechovsky N, Mariani-Kurkdjian P, et al. Bacterial counts in cerebrospinal fluid of children with meningitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1990; 9: 278–281.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman W. Concentrations of bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with bacterial meningitis. J Pedtr 1976; 88: 549–552.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchison DA. Drug resistance in mycobacteria. Br J Bull 1984; 50: 84–90.
   Google Scholar
• Frisch AW, Tripp JT, Barrett Jr. CD, Pidgeon BE. Specific polysaccharide content of pneumonic lungs. J Expl Med 1942; 76: 505–510.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen G, Blondeau JM. Selection and characterization of fluoroquinolone resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa by ciprofloxacin (Cpx) and levofloxacin (Lfx) using high density cultures. 13th ECCMID, Glasgow, Scotland, May 10–13, 2003. Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• Metzler KL, Borsos S, Hansen G, Blondeau JM. Determination of the mutant prevention concentration (MPC) for several antimicrobial agents (AA) against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (SA). Canadian Microbiology Association, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, June, 2002. Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen G, Metzler KL, Blondeau JM. Comparison of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), mutant prevention concentration (MPC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of ciprofloxacin (C) and levofloxacin (L) against enteric gram-negative bacilli (gnb). 41st International Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 19–22, 2002. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson RJ, Cavalcanti R, Brunton JL, Bast DJ, De Azavedo J, Kibsey P, Fleming C. Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2002; 346 (10):747–757.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson KB, Tan JS, File Jr. TM, Di Persio JR, Willey BM, Low DE. Emergence of levofloxacin-resistant pneumococci in immunocompromised adults after therapy for communityacquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 376–381.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao X, Drlica K. Restricting the selection of antibioticresistant mutant bacteria: measurement and potential uses of the mutant selection window. J Infect Dis 2002; 185: 561- 565.
   Google Scholar
• Drlica K. The mutant selection window and antimicrobial resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 52:11–17.
   Google Scholar
• Firsov AA, Vostrov SN, Lubenko IY, Drlica K, Portnoy YA, Zinner SH. In vitro pharmacodynamic evaluation of the mutant selection window hypothesis: four fluoroquinolones against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47 (5):1604–1613.
   Google Scholar
• Hoban DJ, Bouchillon SK, Johnson JL, et al. Gemifloxacin Surveillance Study Research Group. Comparative in vitro activity of gemifloxacin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin and ofloxacin in a North American surveillance study. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 40: 51–57.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM, Hansen G, Borsos S, Irvine L, Blanco L. In vitro susceptibility of 4903 bacterial isolates of gemifloxcin - an advanced fluoroquinolone. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003; 9: 44–49.
   Google Scholar
• Gillespie SH, Voelker LL, Dickens A. Evolutionary barriers to quinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Microb Drug Resistance 2002; 8 (2):79–84.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM, Metzler KL, Hansen G, Borsos S. Comparative mutant prevention concentration (MPC) and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of gatifloxacin (GA), gemifloxacin (GM), levofloxacin (L) and moxifloxacin (MXF) against 101 isolates of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). 41st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 19–22, 2002. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, DC. Abstract.
   Google Scholar
• Metzler KL, Hansen G, Hedlin P, Harding E, Drlica K, Blondeau JM. Comparison of minimal inhibitory and mutant prevention concentrations of 4 fluoroquinolones against clinical isolates of methicillin-susceptible and resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003; In Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM. A review of the comparative in vitro activity of 12 antimicrobial agents with a focus on 4 new “respiratory quinolones”. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999; 43 (Suppl.B):1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM, Suter ME, Misfeldt C, Canadian Pseudomonas Study Group. Canadian Pseudomonas aeruginosa susceptibility study from 48 medical centers: focus on ciprofloxacin. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1998; 10: 297–302.
   Google Scholar
• Hoban DJ, Jones RN, The Canadian Ofloxacin Study Group. Canadian ofloxacin susceptibility study: a comparative study from 18 medical centers. Chemotherapy 1995; 41: 34- 38.
   Google Scholar
• Jones RN, Biedenbach DJ. Comparative activity of garenoxacin (BMS 284756), a novel desfluoroquinolone, tested against 8331 isolates from community-acquired respiratory tract infections: North American results from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1999–2001). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 45: 273–278.
   Google Scholar
• Karlowsky JA, Kelly LJ, Thornsberry C, et al. Susceptibility to fluoroquinolones among commonly isolated gram-negative bacilli in 2000: TRUST and TSN data for the United States. Tracking resistance in the United States today. The Surveillance Network. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002; 19 (1): 21–31.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen G, Zhao X, Drlica K, Blondeau JM. Mutant prevention concentration (MPC) of ciprofloxacin (C) and levofloxacin (L) against urinary isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa., 22nd International Congress of Chemotherapy, Amsterdam, 2001. International Society of Chemotherapy.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen G, Zhao X, Drlica K, Blondeau JM. Mutant prevention concentration (MPC) for quinolone and non-quinolone antimicrobial agents against clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) and the effect of antibiotic combinations. 22nd International Congress of Chemotherapy, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, June 30-July 3, 2001. Abstract P27.109.
   Google Scholar
• Blondeau JM. Appropriate antibiotic use - past lessons provide future directions. International Congress and Symposium Series, Royal Society of Medicine Press Limited 2001:1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Smith H, Nichol KA, Hoban DJ, Zhanel GG. Stretching the mutant prevention concentration (MPC) beyond its limits. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51: 1323–1325.
   Google Scholar
• Lu T, Zhao X, Li X, Hansen G, Blondeau JM, Drlica K. Effect of chloramphenicol, erythromycin, moxifloxacin, penicillin and tetracycline concentration on the recovery of resistant mutants of Mycobacterium smegmatis and Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 52: 61–64.
   Google Scholar
• Doern GV. Antimicrobial use and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance with Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33 (Suppl.3):S187- S192.
   Google Scholar