Gynodioecy in Thymus pulegioides L., T. serpyllum L., and their hybrid T. × oblongifolius Opiz (Lamiaceae): Flower size dimorphism, female frequency, and effect of environmental factors

REFERENCES

• Alatalo JM, Molau U. 1995. Effect of altitude on the sex ratio in populations of Silene acaulis (Caryophyllaceae). Nord J Bot 15: 251–256.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashman T-L. 2002. The role of herbivores in the evolution of separate sexes from hermaphroditism. Ecology 83: 1175–1184.
   Google Scholar
• Ashman T-L, Bradburn M, Cole DH, Blaney BH, Raguso RA. 2005. The scent of a male: the role of floral volatiles in pollination of a gender dimorphic plant. Ecology 86: 2099–2105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashman T-L, Penet L. 2007. Direct and indirect effects of a sex-biased antagonist on male and female fertility: Consequences for reproductive trait evolution in a gender-dimorphic plant. Am Nat 169: 595–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assouad MW, Dommée B, Lumaret R, Valdeyron G. 1978. Reproductive capacities in the sexual forms of the gynodioecious species Thymus vulgaris L. Bot J Linn Soc 77: 29–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey MF, Delph LF. 2007. A field guide to models of sex-ratio evolution in gynodioecious species. Oikos 116: 1609–1617.
   Google Scholar
• Balevičienė J. 1991. Syntaxonomy-phytogeographical structure of vegetation in Lithuania. Vilnius: Mokslas.
   Google Scholar
• Balevičienė J, Kizienė B, Lazdauskaitė Ž, Patalauskaitė D, Rašomavičius V, Sinkevičienė Z, et al. 1998. Vegetation of Lithuania. 1. Meadows. Kaunas, Vilnius: Šviesa.
   Google Scholar
• Barr CM. 2004. Soil moisture and sex ratio in a plant with nuclear-cytoplasmic sex inheritance. Proc R Soc Lond B 271: 1935–1939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun-Blanquet J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzuge der Vegetationskunde. Wien-New York.
   Google Scholar
• Darwin C. 1877. The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species. London: John Murray.
   Google Scholar
• Delph LE. 1996. Flower size dimorphism in plants with unisexual flowers. In: Lloyd DGB, editor. Floral biology: Studies on floral evolution in animal-pollinated plants. New York: Chapman & Hall. pp. 217–237.
   Google Scholar
• Delph LF. 1990. Sex-ratio variation in the gynodioecious shrub Hebe strictissima (Scrophulariaceae). Evolution 44: 134–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delph LF, Lloyd DG. 1991. Environmental and genetic control of gender in the dimorphic shrub Hebe subalpina. Evolution 45: 1957–1964.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dommee B, Assouad W, Valdeyron G. 1978. Natural selection and gynodioecy in Thymus vulgaris L. Bot J Linn Soc 77: 17–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckhart VM. 1999. Sexual dimorphism in flowers and inflorescences. In: Geber MA, Dawson TE, Delph LF, editors. Gender and sexual dimorphism in flowering plants. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 123–148.
   Google Scholar
• Fisogni A, Cristofolini G, Podda L, Galloni M. 2011. Reproductive ecology in the endemic Primula apennina Widmer (Primulaceae). Plant Biosyst 145: 353–361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank SA. 1989. The evolutionary dynamics of cytoplasmic male-sterility. Am Nat 133: 345–376.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogina EE. 1990. Mutability and form development in the genus Thymus L. Moscow: Nauka.
   Google Scholar
• Gouyon PH, Vernet Ph. 1982. The consequences of gynodioecy in natural populations of Thymus vulgaris L. Theor Appl Genet 61: 315–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudžinskas Z. 1993. Genus Ambrosia L. (Asteraceae) in Lithuania. Thaiszia J Bot 3: 89–96.
   Google Scholar
• Kamašina V, Ložienė K. 2009. The evaluation of phenotypic diversity of Thymus × oblongifolius according to some anatomical characters and comparison with parent species. Acta Bot Hung 51: 85–97.
   Google Scholar
• Kaul MLH. 1988. Male sterility in higher plants Monographs on Theoretical and Applied Genetics. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Landergott U, Schneller JJ, Holderegger R, Thompson JD. 2009. Sex-ratio variation and spatial distribution of nuclear and cytoplasmic sex-determining genes in gynodioecious Thymus praecox across altitudinal gradients. Evol Ecol Res 11: 23–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lekavičius AA. 1976. Thymus L. In: Ivanauskienė M, editor. Flora of Lithuanian SSR. no 5. Vilnius: Mokslas. pp. 308–314.
   Google Scholar
• Lekavičius AA, Jaskonis JA. 1968. The genus of thyme (Thymus L.) in Lithuania (2. Intraspecific forms and some biochemical properties of larger wild thyme). Proc Acad Sci Lith 46: 19–23.
   Google Scholar
• Ložienė K. 2002. Infraspecific taxa of Thymus serpyllum (Lamiaceae) growing in Lithuania. Thaiszia J Bot 12: 61–74.
   Google Scholar
• Ložienė K, Mártonfiova L. 2004. Thymus chromosome numbers from Lithuania. Thaiszia J Bot 14: 63–73.
   Google Scholar
• Ložienė K, Vaičiūnienė J. 1999. Infraspecific diversity of Thymus pulegioides L. and characteristics of habitats. Bot Lith 5: 27–40.
   Google Scholar
• Ložienė K, Vaičiūnienė J, Venskutonis PR. 2002. Chemical composition of the essential oil of an interspecific hybrid of thyme (Thymus(oblongifolius Opiz) growing wild in Lithuania. J Essent Oil Res 14: 308–311.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manicacci D, Atlan A, Rossello JAE, Couvet D. 1998. Gynodioecy and reproductive trait variation in three Thymus species (Lamiaceae). Int J Plant Sci 159: 948–957.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manicacci D, Couvet D, Belhassen E, Gouyon P-H, Atlan A. 1996. Founder effect and sex ratio in the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris L. Mol Ecol 5: 63–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manicacci D, Olivieri I, Perrot V, Atlan A, Gouyon PH, Prosperi JM, et al. 1992. Landscape ecology: population genetics at the metapopulation level. Landsc Ecol 6: 147–159.
   Google Scholar
• Miller JS, Stanton-Geddes JL. 2007. Gynodioecy in Lobelia siphilitica and L. spicata (Lobeliaceae) from western Massachusetts. J Torrey Bot Soc 134: 349–361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller JS, Venable DL. 2003. Floral morphometrics and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in Lycium (Solanaceae). Evolution 57: 74–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson E, Agren J. 2006. Population size, female fecundity, and sex ratio variation in gynodioecious Plantago maritime. J Evol Biol 19: 825–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owens SJ, Ubera-Jiménez JL. 1992. Breeding systems in Labiatae. In: Harley RM, Reynolds T, editors. Advances in Labiate science. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. pp. 257–280.
   Google Scholar
• Salgueiro LR, da Cunha AP, Paiva J. 1993. Chemotaxonomic characterization of a Thymus hybrid from Portugal. Flav Fragr J 8: 325–330.
   Google Scholar
• Schulz A. 1888. Beitäage zur Kenntnis der Bestäubungseinrichtungen und Geschlechtsverteilung bei den Pflanzen. Bibl Botan 10: 90–93.
   Google Scholar
• Spigler RB, Ashman TL. 2011. Sex ratio and subdioecy in Fragaria virginiana: The roles of plasticity and gene flow examined. New Phytol 4: 1058–1068.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl-Biskup E, Holthuijzen J. 1995. Essentials oil and glycosidically bound volatiles of lemon-scented thyme, Thymus × citriodorus (Pers.). Schreb Flav Fragr J 10: 225–229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens DP, Van Damme JMM. 1988. The evolution and maintenance of gynodioecy in sexually and vegetatively reproducing plants. Heredity 61: 329–337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson J. 2002. Populiation structure and the spatial dynamics of genetic polymorphism in thyme. In: Stahl-Biskup E, Sáez F, editors. Thyme. The genus Thymus. London and New York: Taylor and Francis. pp. 44–74.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson JD, Rolland A-G, Prugnolle F. 2002. Genetic variation for sexual dimorphism in flower size within and between populations of gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris. J Evol Biol 15: 362–372.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widen K-G, Alanko P, Uotila M. 1977. Thymus serpyllum L. × vulgaris L., morphology, chromosome number and chemical composition. Ann Bot Fennici 14: 29–34.
   Google Scholar
• Viscosi V, Lepais O, Gerber S, Fortini P. 2009. Leaf morphological analyses in four European oak species (Quercus) and their hybrids: A comparison of traditional and geometric morphometric methods. Plant Biosyst 143: 564–574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar