Correcting the 3MS for Bias Does Not Improve Accuracy When Screening for Cognitive Impairment or Dementia

REFERENCES

• Abraham , I. L. , Manning , C. A. , Boyd , M. R. , Neese , J. B. , Newman , M. C. Plowfield , L. A. 1993 . Cognitive screening of nursing home residents: Factor analytic structure of the Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) examination . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 8 : 133 – 138 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert , M. S. 1981 . Geriatric neuropsychology . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 49 : 835 – 850 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1987 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 3rd Ed. Rev. , Washington, D.C. : American Psychiatric Association Press .
   Google Scholar
• Andrés , J. , Perrault , A. and Wolfson , C. 2001 . Reliable individual change scores on the 3MS in older persons with dementia: Results from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging . International Psychogeriatrics , 13 : 71 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony , J. C. , LeResche , L. , Niaz , U. , von , M. R. and Folstein , M. F. 1982 . Limits of the ‘Mini-Mental State’ as a screening test for dementia and delirium among hospital patients . Psychological Medicine , 12 : 297 – 408 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamber , D. 1975 . The area above the ordinal dominance graph and the area below the receiver operating characteristic graph . Journal of Mathematical Psychology , 12 : 387 – 415 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begg , C. B. and Greenes , R. A. 1983 . Assessment of diagnostic tests when disease verification is subject to selection bias . Biometrics , 39 : 207 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belle , S. H. , Seaberg , E. C. , Ganguli , M. , Ratcliff , G. , DeKosky , S. and Kuller , L. H. 1996 . Effect of education and gender adjustment on the sensitivity and specificity of a cognitive screening battery for dementia: Results from the MoVIES project . Neuroepidemiology , 15 : 321 – 329 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bravo , G. and Hébert , R. 1997a . Age- and education-specific reference values for the Mini-Mental and Modified Mini-Mental State examinations derived from a non-demented elderly population . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 2 : 1008 – 1018 .
   Google Scholar
• Bravo , G. and Hébert , R. 1997b . Reliability of the Modified Mini-Mental State examination in the context of a two-phase community prevalence study . Neuroepidemiology , 16 : 141 – 148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , L. M. , Schinka , J. A. , Mortimer , J. A. and Graves , A. B. 2003 . 3MS normative data for elderly African Americans . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 25 : 234 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group . 1994 . Canadian Study of Health and Aging: Study methods and prevalence of dementia . Canadian Medical Association Journal , 6 : 433 – 440 .
   Google Scholar
• DeLong , E. R. , DeLong , D. M. and Clarke-Pearson , D. L. 1988 . Comparing the areas under two or more correlated receiver operating characteristic curves: A nonparametric approach . Biometrics , 44 : 837 – 845 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efron , B. and Tibshirani , R. J. 1993 . An introduction to the bootstrap , New York : Chapman & Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Essex-Sorlie , D. 1995 . Medical Biostatistics & Epidemiology , Appleton & Lange : Norwalk, CN .
   Google Scholar
• Fisk , J. D. , Rockwood , K. , Hondas , B. , Tripp , D. A. , Stadnyk , K. and Doble , S. E. 1995 . Cognitive screening in a population-based sample of community-living elderly: Effects of age and education on the construct of cognitive status . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 10 : 687 – 694 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein , M. F. , Folstein , S. E. and McHugh , P. R. 1975 . Mini-Mental State a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 12 : 189 – 198 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grace , J. , Nadler , J. D. , White , D. A. , Guilmette , T. J. , Giuliano , A. J. Monsch , A. U. 1995 . Folstein vs. Modified Mini-Mental State examination in geriatric stroke . Archives of Neurology , 52 : 477 – 484 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley , J. A. and McNeil , B. J. 1982 . The meaning and use of the area under a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve . Radiology , 143 : 29 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley , J. A. and McNeil , B. J. 1983 . A method of comparing the areas under receiver operating characteristic curves derived from the same cases . Radiology , 148 : 839 – 843 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaton , R. K. , Grant , I. and Matthews , C. G. 1991 . Comprehensive norms of an expanded Halstead-Reitan battery: Demographic corrections, research findings, and clinical applications , Odessa, FL : Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Jagger , C. , Clarke , M. , Anderson , J. and Battcock , T. 1992 . Misclassification of dementia by the Mini-Mental State Examination: Are education and social class the only factors? . Age and Ageing , 21 : 404 – 411 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , T. G. , Schinka , J. A. , Vanderploeg , R. D. , Small , B. J. , Borenstein Graves , A. and Mortimer , J. A. 2002 . 3MS normative data for the elderly . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 17 : 171 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraemer , H. C. , Moritz , D. J. and Yesavage , J. 1998 . Adjusting Mini-Mental State Examination scores for age and education level to screen for dementia: Correcting bias or reducing validity . International Psychogeriatrics , 10 : 43 – 51 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lamarre , C. J. and Patten , S. B. 1991 . Evaluation of the Modified Mini-Mental State examination in a general psychiatric population . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry , 36 : 507 – 511 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leibovici , D. , Ritchie , K. , Ledésert , B. and Touchon , J. 1996 . Does education level determine the course of cognitive decline? . Age and Ageing , 25 : 392 – 397 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcopulos , B. A. , McLain , C. A. and Guiliano , A. J. 1997 . Cognitive impairment or inadequate norms? A study of healthy, rural, older adults with limited education . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 11 : 111 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDowell , I. , Kristjansson , B. , Hill , G. B. and Hébert , R. 1997 . Community screening for dementia: The Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE) and Modified Mini-Mental State Exam (3MS) compared . Journal of Clinical Epidemiology , 50 : 377 – 383 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadler , J. D. , Relkin , N. R. , Cohen , M. S. , Hodder , R. A. , Reingold , J. and Plum , F. 1995 . Mental status testing in the elderly nursing home population . Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology , 8 : 177 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliwinski , M. , Buschke , H. , Stewart , W. F. , Masur , D. and Lipton , R. D. 1997 . The effect of dementia risk factors on comparative and diagnostic selective reminding norms . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 3 : 317 – 326 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stern , Y. 2002 . What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 8 : 448 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teng , E. L. and Chui , H. C. 1987 . The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) examination . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 48 : 314 – 318 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tombaugh , T. N. , McDowell , I. , Kristjansson , B. and Hubley , A. M. 1996 . Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Modified MMSE (3MS): A psychometric comparison and normative data . Psychological Assessment , : 48 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuokko , H. and Frerichs , R. J. 2000 . Cognitive impairment with no dementia (CIND): Longitudinal studies, the findings, and the issues . The Clinical Neuropsychologist , 14 : 504 – 525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuokko , H. , Garrett , D. D. , McDowell , I. , Silverberg , N. and Kristjansson , B. 2003 . Cognitive decline in high-functioning older adults: Reserve or ascertainment bias? . Aging & Mental Health , 7 : 259 – 270 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tschanz , J. T. , Welsh-Bohmer , K. A. , Plassman , B. L. , Norton , M. C. , Wyse , B. W. and Breitner , J. C. S. 2002 . An adaptation of the modified mini-mental state examination: Analysis of demographic influences and normative data . Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology , 15 : 28 – 38 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Unverzagt , F. W. , Hui , S. L. , Farlow , M. R. , Hall , K. S. and Hendrie , H. C. 1998 . Cognitive decline and education in mild dementia . Neurology , 50 : 181 – 185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van , R. , Simard , M. and Farcnik , K. 1999 . Diagnosis of dementia and treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Pharmacologic management of disease progression and cognitive impairment . Canadian Family Physician , 45 : 945 – 952 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou , X. and Higgs , R. E. 2000 . Assessing the relative accuracies of two screening tests in the presence of verification bias . Statistics in Medicine , 19 : 1697 – 1705 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zweig , M. H. and Campbell , G. 1993 . Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) plots: A fundamental evaluation tool in clinical medicine . Clinical Chemistry , 39 : 561 – 577 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar