Covid-19 and Race: News Coverage of Structural Racism and The Role of John Henryism and Racial Weathering in Bame Covid-19 Deaths

REFERENCES

• Abbasi, Jennifer. 2020. “Taking a Closer Look at COVID-19, Health Inequities, and Racism.” JAMA 324 (5): 427–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldridge, Robert W., Dan Lewer, Srinivasa Vittal Katikireddi, Rohini Mathur, Neha Pathak, Rachel Burns, and Ellen B. Fragaszy. 2020. “Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Groups in England Are at Increased Risk of Death from COVID-19: Indirect Standardisation of NHS Mortality Data [Version 2; Peer Review: 3 Approved].” Wellcome Open Res 55 (88), https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15922.2.
   Google Scholar
• Aviv, Abraham, W. Chen, J. P. Gardner, M. Kimura, M. Brimacombe, X. Cao, S. R. Srinivasan, and G. S. Berenson. 2008. “Leukocyte Telomere Dynamics: Longitudinal Findings among Young Adults in the Bogalusa Heart Study.” American Journal of Epidemiology 169 (3): 323–329.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BBC News. 3 August 2020. “Brits from BAME Backgrounds ARE More Likely to Die of Covid-19, Public Health England Review Confirms.” BBC News, August 3. Accessed 30 August 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-53539577.
   Google Scholar
• Bell, Derrick. 1991. “Racial Realism.” Connecticut Law Review 24: 363.
   Google Scholar
• Berger, Arthur Asa. 2017. Media Analysis Techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Bhatia, Mrigesh. 2020. “COVID-19 and BAME Group in the United Kingdom.” The International Journal of Community and Social Development 2 (2): 269–272.
   Google Scholar
• Blanchard, Sam, and Stephen Matthews. 2020. “Brits From BAME Backgrounds ARE More Likely to Die of Covid-19”, Public Health England Review Confirm., MailOnline. June 2. Accessed 2 September 2020. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8380299/People-BAME-backgrounds-likely-die-Covid-19.html.
   Google Scholar
• BMA. 2020. “COVID-19: The Risk to BAME Doctors.” British Medical Association. Accessed 3 August 2020. https://www.bma.org.uk/advice-and-support/covid-19/your-health/covid-19-the-risk-to-bame-doctors.
   Google Scholar
• Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2006. Racism Without Racists: Colorblind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. 2nd ed. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Borrell, Luisa N., Florence J. Dallo, and Norma Nguyen. 2010. “Racial/Ethnic Disparities in All-Cause Mortality in US Adults: The Effect of Allostatic Load.” Public Health Reports 125 (6): 810–816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borrell, Luisa N., Catarina I. Kiefe, Ana V. Diez-Roux, David R. Williams, and Penny Gordon-Larsen. 2013. “Racial Discrimination, Racial/Ethnic Segregation, and Health Behaviors in the CARDIA Study.” Ethnicity & Health 18 (3): 227–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, Connor. 2020. “Ethnic Minorities Will Continue to Be Hit Hardest by Second Wave Because Factors that Make Them Vulnerable to Covid-19 Can’t Be Changed Overnight, Government Race Advisor Warns.” MailOnline, October 22. Accessed December 2020. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8867275/Covid-risk-factors-ethnic-minorities-changed-overnight.html.
   Google Scholar
• Boyle, Darren. 2020. “Black and Ethnic Minority Victims Account for 72 Per Cent of NHS Coronavirus Deaths Despite Making Up Just 44 Per Cent of the Service’s Workforce.” Mailonline 23, April 23. 3 August 2020. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8249151/Ethnic-minority-medics-account-72-cent-NHS-Covid-19-deaths.html.
   Google Scholar
• Brondolo, Elizabeth, Ricardo Rieppi, Kim P. Kelly, and William Gerin. 2003. “Perceived Racism and Blood Pressure: A Review of the Literature and Conceptual and Methodological Critique.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 25(1): 55–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunyasi, Tehama Lopez, and Candis Watts Smith. 2019. Stay Woke: A People’s Guide to Making All Black Lives Matter. New York: NYU Press.
   Google Scholar
• CEBM. 2020. “BAME COVID-19 DEATHS – What Do We Know? Rapid Data & Evidence Review.” The Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. https://www.cebm.net/covid-19/bame-covid-19-deaths-what-do-we-know-rapid-data-evidence-review/.
   Google Scholar
• Chae, David H., Amani M. Nuru-Jeter, Nancy E. Adler, Gene H. Brody, Jue Lin, Elizabeth H. Blackburn, and Elissa S. Epel. 2014. “Discrimination, Racial Bias, and Telomere Length in African-American Men.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 46 (2): 103–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daga, Sunil, et al. 2020. “Self-reported Occupational Risk for COVID-19 in Hospital Doctors from Black Asian & Minority Ethnic Communities In UK.” The Physician 6 (1), https://physicianjnl.net/index.php/phy/article/view/13.
   Google Scholar
• Das, Aniruddha. 2013. “How Does Race Get ‘Under The Skin’: Inflammation, Weathering, and Metabolic Problems In Late Life.” Social Science & Medicine 77: 75–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. 2017. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. Vol. 20. New York: NYU Press.
   Google Scholar
• Donaldson, Anthony M. 2020. “George Floyd’s Tragic Death Symbolizes the Struggle of Black America.” Tennessean. July 24 2020. Accessed 4 September 2020. https://eu.tennessean.com/story/opinion/2020/07/24/america-suffers-suffocation-racism/5498593002/.
   Google Scholar
• Dunning, Alison, et al. 2020. “Bame and Covid-19. Scientists for Labour.” Accessed 3 June 2020. https://a1d139c7-34af-400b-88eb-0b256c91ae1e.filesusr.com/ugd/4f7627_0f12effdb6a048fea90772457a081404.pdf?fbclid = IwAR057JqObs3jKb79b6KqRlC4Kbgeq24n0QLGA2XXUUwj4oINOGTaPmAPSBA.
   Google Scholar
• Ehsan, Rabik. 2020. “'Structural Racism' Has no Place in the National Debate on Tackling Covid-19.” The Telegraph. 22 October. Accessed 22 December 2020: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2020/10/22/structural-racism-has-no-place-national-debate-tackling-covid/
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, Stephen M. 2011. “Do the Right Thing: Understanding the Interest-Convergence Thesis.” Northwestern Law Review Colloquy 106: 248.
   Google Scholar
• Fenton, Kevin, Emma Pawson, and Leah de Souza-Thomas. 2020. “Beyond the Data: Understanding the Impact of COVID-19 on BAME Communities.” Public Health England. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/892376/COVID_stakeholder_engagement_synthesis_beyond_the_data.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Fernander, Anita F., et al. 2004. “John Henry Active Coping, Education, and Blood Pressure Among Urban Blacks.” Journal of the National Medical Association 96 (2): 246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fields, Karen, and Barbara Fields. 2014. Racecraft: The Soul of Inequality in American Life. New York: Verso Trade.
   Google Scholar
• Fischer, Richard. 2020. “‘John Henryism’: The Hidden Health Impact of Race Inequality.” BBC Futures. August 24. Accessed 1 September 2020. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200821-john-henryism-the-hidden-health-impact-of-race-inequality.
   Google Scholar
• Garner, Steve. 2017. Racisms: An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Gelaye, Bizu, Simmie Foster, Manoj Bhasin, Ahmed Tawakol, and Gregory Fricchione. 2020. “SARS-CoV-2 Morbidity and Mortality in Racial/Ethnic Minority Populations: A Window into the Stress Related Inflammatory Basis of Health Disparities?.” Brain, Behavior, & Immunity-Health 9: 100158.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T. 1994. “The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African American Women and Infants: Implications for Reproductive Strategies and Policy Analysis.” Power and Decision: The Social Control of Reproduction 2 (3): 77–100.
   Google Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T. 1996. “Black/White Differences in the Relationship of Maternal Age to Birthweight: A Population-Based Test of the Weathering Hypothesis.” Social Science & Medicine 42 (4): 589–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T., Margaret Hicken, Danya Keene, and John Bound. 2006. “‘Weathering’ and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores Among Blacks and Whites in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health 96 (5): (2006): 826–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T., Margaret T. Hicken, Jay A. Pearson, Sarah J. Seashols, Kelly L. Brown, and Tracey Dawson Cruz. 2010. “Do US Black Women Experience Stress-Related Accelerated Biological Aging?” Human Nature 21 (1): 19–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillborn, David. 2010. “The White Working Class, Racism and Respectability: Victims, Degenerates and Interest-Convergence.” British Journal of Educational Studies 58 (1): 3–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, Louis, Shelly Brown-Jeffy, Robert Aronson, and Charles Stephens. 2011. “Critical Race Theory as Theoretical Framework and Analysis Tool for Population Health Research.” Critical Public Health 21 (1): 81–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gravlee, Clarence C. 2020. “Systemic Racism, Chronic Health Inequities, and COVID-19: A Syndemic in the Making?” American Journal of Human Biology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7441277/.
   Google Scholar
• Greene, Sara Sternberg. 2017. “The Bootstrap Trap.” Duke Law Journal 67: 233.
   Google Scholar
• The Guardian. 2020. “Racism Contributed to Disproportionate UK BAME Coronavirus Deaths, Inquiry Finds.” The Guardian. 14 June. Accessed 30 June 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/14/racism-disproportionate-uk-bame-coronavirus-deaths-report
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton, Darrick. 2017. “Post-Racial Rhetoric, Racial Health Disparities, and Health Disparity Consequences of Stigma, Stress, and Racism.” Washington Center for Equitable Growth: https://equitablegrowth.org/working-papers/racial-health-disparities/.
   Google Scholar
• Hattenstone, Simon. 2020. “Ida Lost Two Brothers in 10 Days, and Ken’s Teenage Sweetheart Died at 44. Now, They’re Looking for Answers.” The Guardian, August 8 2020. Accessed 9 August 2020. https://www.facebook.com/theguardian/posts/ida-lost-two-brothers-in-10-days-and-kens-teenage-sweetheart-died-at-44-now-they/10159412059171323/.
   Google Scholar
• Hudson, Darrell L., Harold W. Neighbors, Arline T. Geronimus, and James S. Jackson. 2016. “Racial Discrimination, John Henryism, and Depression among African Americans.” Journal of Black Psychology 42 (3): 221–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikram, Umar Z., Marieke B. Snijder, Charles Agyemang, Aart H. Schene, Ron J. G. Peters, Karien Stronks, and Anton E. Kunst. 2017. “Perceived Ethnic Discrimination and the Metabolic Syndrome in Ethnic Minority Groups: The Healthy Life in an Urban Setting Study.” Psychosomatic Medicine 79 (1): 101–111.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jackson, James S., and Katherine M. Knight. 2006. “Race and Self-Regulatory Behaviors: The Role of the Stress Response and HPA Axis in Physical and Mental Health Disparities.” In Social Structure, Aging, and Self-Regulation in the Elderly Carstensen, edited by Laura L. Carstensen and K. Warner Schale, 189–208. New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• James, Sherman A., Sue A. Hartnett, and William D. Kalsbeek, 1983. “John Henryism and Blood Pressure Differences Among Black Men.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 6 (3): 259-278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, Sherman A. 1994. “John Henryism and the Health of African-Americans.” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 18 (2): 163–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jemal, Ahmedin, Elizabeth Ward, Robert N. Anderson, Taylor Murray, and Michael J. Thun, Sorensen Thorkild I. A. 2008. “Widening of Socioeconomic Inequalities in US Death Rates, 1993–2001.” PloS One 3 (5): 2008: e2181.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keskinen, Suvi, and Rikke Andreassen. 2017. “Developing Theoretical Perspectives on Racialisation and Migration.” Nordic Journal of Migration Research 7 (2): 64–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lay, Kat. 2020. “Racism ‘Raises Risk of Virus for Minorities’.” The Times. 17 June. Accessed August 2 2020. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/racism-increases-coronavirus-risk-for-ethnic-minorities-report-finds-jgf02f6qh.
   Google Scholar
• Lintern, Bell. 2020. “Report Finds Non-Medical Factors Behind Higher Risk of BAME Covid-19 Deaths.” The Independent. 3 June. Accessed June 28 2020. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/coronavirus-ethnic-minorities-hospital-sage-deaths-a9545096.html
   Google Scholar
• Louis-Jean, James, Kenney Cenat, Chidinma V. Njoku, James Angelo, and Debbie Sanon. 2020. “Coronavirus (COVID-19) and Racial Disparities: A Perspective Analysis.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 6 (2): 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Macnamara, Jim R. 2005. “Media Content Analysis: Its Uses, Benefits and Best Practice Methodology.” Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal 6 (1): 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Marsh, Sarah, and Niamh McIntyre. 2020. “Six in 10 UK Health Workers Killed by Covid-19 Are BAME.” The Guardian. 25 May 25. Accessed 22 July 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/25/six-in-10-uk-health-workers-killed-by-covid-19-are-bame.
   Google Scholar
• McGee, Ebony O., and David Stovall. 2015. “Reimagining Critical Race Theory in Education: Mental Health, Healing, and the Pathway to Liberatory Praxis.” Educational Theory 65 (5): 491–511.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meer, Nasar, Kaveri Qureshi, and Ben Kasstant. 2020. “COVID-19 and BAME Disproportionality by Meer, Qureshi, Kasstan & Hill.” Social Policy Association. 11 May. Accessed 20 July 2020. http://www.social-policy.org.uk/spa-blog/covid-19-and-bame-disproportionality/
   Google Scholar
• Merritt, Marcellus M., Gary G. Bennett, Redford B. Williams, John J. Sollers, and Julian F. Thayer. 2004. “Low Educational Attainment, John Henryism, and Cardiovascular Reactivity to and Recovery from Personally Relevant Stress.” Psychosomatic Medicine 66 (1): 49-55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta, Divya, Torsten Klengel, Karen N. Conneely, Alicia K. Smith, André Altmann, Thaddeus W. Pace, Monika Rex-Haffner, et al. 2013. “Childhood Maltreatment Is Associated with Distinct Genomic and Epigenetic Profiles in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (20): 8302–8307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, Peter, and Nikolas Rose. 1990. “Governing Economic Life.” Economy and Society 19 (1): 1–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montagu, Ashley. 1997. Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, Alison. 2020. “Exclusive: Government Censored BAME Covid-Risk Review.” HJS. 2 June. Accessed June 30 2020. https://www.hsj.co.uk/coronavirus/exclusive-government-censored-bame-covid-risk-review/7027761.article.
   Google Scholar
• Moorthy, Arumugam, and Thangasamy K. Sankar. 2020. “Emerging Public Health Challenge In UK: Perception and Belief on Increased COVID19 Death Among BAME Healthcare Workers.” Journal of Public Health 42 (3): 486–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moschel, Mathias. 2007. “Color Blindness or Total Blindness: The Absence of Critical Race Theory in Europe.” Rutgers Race & Law Review 9: 57.
   Google Scholar
• Mundasad, Smitha. 2020. “Black People ‘Twice as Likely to Catch Coronavirus’” BBC News. Accessed 15 December 2020. https://bbc.com/news/health-54907473.
   Google Scholar
• Nadal, Kevin L., Katie E. Griffin, Yinglee Wong, Kristin C. Davidoff, and Lindsey S. Davis. 2017. “The Injurious Relationship Between Racial Microaggressions and Physical Health: Implications for Social Work.” Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work 26 (1–2): 6–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng, Kate. 2020. “These Are the Names of the NHS Workers Who Have Died in the Fight Against Coronavirus.” The Independent, April 20. Accessed 15 August 2020. https://emilycontois.com/2019/08/01/food-media-syllabus/.
   Google Scholar
• NHS. 2019. “NHS Workforce Race Equality Standard.” NHS. Accessed July 14, 2020. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/wres-2019-data-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Phelan, Jo C., Bruce G. Link, and Naumi M. Feldman. 2013. “The Genomic Revolution and Beliefs About Essential Racial Differences: A Backdoor to Eugenics?.” American Sociological Review 78 (2): 167-191.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pierce, Chester. 1974. “Psychiatric Problems of the Black Minority.” In American Handbook of Psychiatry, edited by Arieti Silvano, 512–523. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Public Health England. 2020. “COVID-19: Understanding the Impact on BAME Communities.” Public Health England. Accessed 4 August 2021. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-understanding-the-impact-on-bame-communitieso.
   Google Scholar
• Reddick, Richard J. 2020. “We Can’t Breathe at Work, Either: John Henryism and the Health Impact of Racism.” Fortune, June 19. Accessed 5 July 2020. https://fortune.com/2020/06/19/john-henryism-black-racism-workplace/.
   Google Scholar
• Rimmer, Abi. 2020. “Covid-19: Two Thirds of Healthcare Workers Who Have Died Were From Ethnic Minorities.” BMJ (Clinical Research ed.) 369: m1621-m1621.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ro, Christine. 2020. “Coronavirus: Why Some Racial Groups Are More Vulnerable.” BBC Future. April 21. Accessed 27 July. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200420-coronavirus-why-some-racial-groups-are-more-vulnerable.
   Google Scholar
• Shastri, Shivang, Subodh Dave, Veena Daga, and Saadia Alvi. 2020. “Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Training Of Junior Doctors in the UK.” Sushruta Journal of Health Policy & Opinion 13 (3): 1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, Carter. 2020. “PHE and BAME Inequalities: Too Little, Too Late?” British Journal of General Practice 70 (699): 498–498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Small, Stephen. 1998. “The Contours of Racialization: Structures, Representation and Resistance in the United States.” In Racism & Social Inequality in Canada, edited by V. Satzewich, 47–64. Toronto: Thompson Educational.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, William A., Man Hung, and Jeremy D. Franklin. 2011. “Racial Battle Fatigue and the Miseducation of Black Men: Racial Microaggressions, Societal Problems, and Environmental Stress.” The Journal of Negro Education 80 (1): 63–82.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, William A., Tara J. Yosso, and Daniel G. Solorzano. 2006. “Challenging Racial Battle Fatigue on Historically White Campuses: A Critical Race Examination of Race-Related Stress.” In Faculty of Color Teaching in Predominantly White Colleges and Universitie, edited by Christine A. Stanley, 299–327. Bolton, MA: Anker.
   Google Scholar
• Stone, Jon. 2020. “Leaked Report Says Racism Could Be Factor in Covid-19 Risk for BAME Communities.” The Independent. 14 June. Accessed 30 June 2020. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/ethnic-minority-coronavirus-deaths-report-racism-bame-public-health-england-a9564851.html
   Google Scholar
• Subramanyam, Malavika A., Sherman A. James, Ana V. Diez-Roux, DeMarc A. Hickson, Daniel Sarpong, Mario Sims, Herman A. Taylor Jr, and Sharon B. Wyatt. 2013. “Socioeconomic Status, John Henryism and Blood Pressure Among African-Americans in the Jackson Heart Study.” Social Science & Medicine 93: 139-146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., C. M. Capodilupo, G. C. Torino, J. M. Bucceri, A. M. B. Holder, K. L. Nadal, and M. Esquilin. 2007. “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice.” American Psychologist, 62 (4): 271–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace, Maeve, Joia Crear-Perry, Lisa Richardson, Meshawn Tarver, and Katherine Theall. 2017. “Separate and Unequal: Structural Racism and Infant Mortality in the US.” Health & Place 45: 140–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward V., and I. Lyons. 2020. “These Are The NHS Workers Who Have Died From Coronavirus.” The Telegraph. Accessed 4 September 2020. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/0/nhs-diedcoronavirus-frontline-worker…
   Google Scholar
• West, Cornel. 2017. Race Matters, 25th Anniversary: With A New Introduction. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
   Google Scholar