Testing the impact of orphan status, illness in the household, and a child's relationship to the household head on wasting in Nigeria: implications for Hamilton's rule

References

• Abdulai, A., & Aubert, D. (2004). A cross-section analysis of household demand for food and nutrients in Tanzania. Agricultural Economics, 31(1), 67–79. doi:10.1111/j.1574-0862.2004.tb00222.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abebe, T. (2009). Orphanhood, poverty and the care dilemma: Review of global policy trends. Social Work and Society. Retrieved from http://www.socwork.net/2009/1.
   Google Scholar
• Abebe, T., & Aase, A. (2007). Children, AIDS and the politics of orphan care in Ethiopia: The extended family revisited. Social Science and Medicine, 64(10), 2058–2069. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aboderin, I., & Hoffman, J. (2015). Families, intergenerational bonds, and aging in sub-Saharan Africa. Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne du Vieillissement, 34(3), 282–289. doi:10.1017/S0714980815000239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agadjanian, V., & Prata, N. (2003). Civil war and child health: Regional and ethnic dimensions of child immunization and malnutrition in Angola. Social Science & Medicine, 56(12), 2515–2527. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00286-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agee, M. D. (2010). Reducing child malnutrition in Nigeria: Combined effects of income growth and provision of information about mothers’ access to health care services. Social Science & Medicine, 71(11), 1973–1980. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.09.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akombi, B. J., Agho, K. E., Hall, J. J., Wali, N., Renzaho, A. M. N., & Merom, D. (2017). Stunting, wasting and underweight in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(8), 863. doi:10.3390/ijerph14080863
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akwara, P. A., Noubary, B., Ah Ken, P., Johnson, L., Kiersten, J., Yates, R., Winfrey, W., Chandan, U. K., Mulenga, D., Kolker, J., & Luo, C. (2010). Who is the vulnerable child? Using survey data to identify children at risk in the era of HIV and AIDS. AIDS Care, 22(9), 1066–1085. doi:10.1080/09540121.2010.498878
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alber, E. (2004). Grandparents as foster-parents: Transformations in foster relations between grandparents and grandchildren in Northern Benin. Africa, 74(1), 28–46. doi:10.3366/afr.2004.74.1.28
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, Z., Abu, N., Ankamah, I. A., Gyinde, E. A., Seidu, A. S., & Abizari, A. (2018). Nutritional status and dietary diversity of orphan and non-orphan children under five years: A comparative study in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. BMC Nutrition, 4(32). doi:10.1186/s40795-018-0240-0
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ankrah, M. E. (1993). The impact of HIV/AIDS on the family and other significant relationships: The African clan revisited. AIDS Care, 5(1), 5–22. doi:10.1080/09540129308258580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ariyo, E., Mortelmans, D., & Wouters, E. (2019). The African child in kinship care: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 98, 178–187. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.12.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assim, U. M. (2013). Understanding kinship care of children in Africa: A family environment or an alternative care option? A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of law in the faculty of law at the University of Western Cape. Chapters 2 and 4. Retrieved July 27, 2020, from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58914601.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Baez, J. E. (2011). Civil wars beyond their borders: The human capital and health consequences of hosting refugees. Journal of Development Economics, 96(2), 391–408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beedie, E. (2015). ‘The day they [children] like they help, you can’t force them’: Challenging assumptions of uniform old age dependency. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(2), 114–122. Retrieved from http://ajhss.org/pdfs/Vol3Issue2/9.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Biemba, G., Beard, J., Brooks, B., Bresnahan, M., & Flynn, D. (2010). The scale, scope and impact of alternative care for OVC in developing countries. Critical Review Paper. Retrieved July 29, 2020, from https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/26993
   Google Scholar
• Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., Bhutta, Z. A., Christian, P., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., Grantham-McGregor, S., Katz, J., Martorell, R., & Uauy, R. (2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 382(9890), 427–451. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60937-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blattman, C., & Miguel, E. (2010). Civil war. Journal of Economic Literature, 48(1), 3–57. doi:10.1257/jel.48.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bledsoe, C. H., Ewbank, D. C., & Isiugo-Abanihe, U. (1988). The effect of child fostering on feeding practices and access to health services in rural Sierra Leone. Social Science and Medicine, 27(6), 627–636. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(88)90011-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block, E. (2014). Flexible kinship: Caring for AIDS orphans in rural Lesotho. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 20(4), 711–727. doi:10.1111/1467-9655.12131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloss, E., Wainaina, F., & Bailey, R. C. (2004). Prevalence and predictors of underweight, stunting, and wasting among children aged 5 and under in Western Kenya. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 50(5), 260–270. doi:10.1093/tropej/50.5.260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgerhoff Mulder, M. (2007). Hamilton’s rule and kin competition: The kipsigs case. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(5), 299–312. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, L., & Pollitt, E. (1996, February). Malnutrition, poverty, and intellectual development. Scientific American, 274(2), 38–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0296-38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulled, N., Singer, M., & Dillingham, R. (2014). The syndemics of childhood diarrhoea: A biosocial perspective on efforts to combat global inequities in diarrhoea-related morbidity and mortality. Global Public Health, 9(7), 841–853. doi:10.1080/17441692.2014.924022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case, A., Paxson, C., & Abledinger, J. (2004). Orphans in Africa: Parental death, poverty, and school enrollment. Demography, 41(3), 483–508. doi:10.1353/dem.2004.0019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle, S. (1995). Child fostering and child’s nutritional outcomes in rural Mali: The role of female status in directing child transfers. Social Science and Medicine, 40(5), 679–693. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)80012-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirwa, W. C. (2002). Social exclusion and inclusion: Challenges to orphan care in Malawi. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 11(1), 93–113. Retrieved from https://njas.fi/njas/article/view/366
   Google Scholar
• Coe, C. (2011). What is the impact of transnational migration on family life? Women’s comparisons of internal and international migration in a small town in Ghana American Ethnologist, 38(1), 148–163. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2010.01298.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coneus, K., Muhlenweg, A. M., & Stichnoth, H. (2014). Orphans at risk in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence on educational and health outcomes. Review of Economics of the Household, 12(4), 641–662. doi:10.1007/s11150-012-9167-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crampin, A. C., Floyd, S., Glynn, J. R., Madise, N., Nyondo, A., Khondowe, M. M., Njoka, C. L., Kanyongoloka, H., Ngwira, B., Zaba, B., & Fine, P. E. M. (2003). The long-term impact of HIV and orphanhood on the mortality and physical well-being of children in rural Malawi. AIDS, 17(3), 389–397. doi:10.1097/00002030-200302140-00013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dauda, R. S. (2013). Aids-orphanhood and human capital development in Nigeria. Journal of Social Research & Policy, 4(1), 121–138. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/aids-orphanhood-human-capital-development-nigeria/docview/1504138446/se-2?accountid=15017
   Google Scholar
• Deinings, K., Marito, G., & Subbarao, K. (2003). AIDS-induced orphanhood as a systemic shock: Magnitude, impact and program interventions in Africa. World Development, 31(7), 1201–1220. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(03)00061-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deleire, T., & Kalil, A. (2002). Good things come in threes: Single-parents multigenerational family structure and adolescent adjustment. Demography, 39(2), 393–413. doi:10.1353/dem.2002.0016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demissie, S., & Worku, A. (2013). Magnitude and factors associated with malnutrition in children 6–59 months of age in pastoral community of Dollo Ado district, Somali region, Ethiopia. Science Journal of Public Health, 1(4), 175–183. doi:10.11648/j.sjph.20130104.12
   Google Scholar
• Demographic and Health Survey. (2012, September). Sampling and household listing manual. Retrieved October 11, 2019, from https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/DHSM4/DHS6_Sampling_Manual_Sept2012_DHSM4.pdf
   Google Scholar
• DeSilva, M. B., Skalicky, A., Beard, J., Cakwe, M., Zhuwau, T., Quinlan, T., & Simon, J. (2012). Early impacts of orphaning: Health, nutrition, and food insecurity in a cohort of school-going adolescents in South Africa. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 7(1), 75–87. doi:10.1080/17450128.2011.648968
   Google Scholar
• Dewey, K. G., & Begum, K. (2011). Long-term consequences of stunting in early life. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 7(Suppl. 3), 5–18. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00349.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhemba, J., & Dhemba, B. (2015). Ageing and care of older persons in Southern Africa: Lesotho and Zimbabwe compared. Social Work & Society, 13(2), 1–16. Retrieved from https://d-nb.info/1080338020/34
   Google Scholar
• Dhludhlu, S., & Lombard, A. (2017). Challenges of statutory social workers in linking foster care services with socio-economic development programmes. Social Work / Maatskeplike Werk, 53(2), 165–185. doi:10.15270/52-2-564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolbin-MacNab, M. L., Jarrott, S. E., Moore, L. E., O’Hare, K. A., Chavonnes Vrugt, M., & Erasmus, M. (2016). Dumela Mma: An examination of resilience among South African grandmothers raising grandchildren. Ageing and Society, 36(10), 2182–2212. doi:10.1017/S0144686X15001014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drew, R. S., Foster, G., & Chitima, J. (1996). Cultural practices associated with death in the North Nyanga District of Zimbabwe and their impact on widows and orphans. Journal of Social Development in Africa, 11(1), 79–86.
   Google Scholar
• Eloundou-Enyegue, P. M., & Stokes, C. S. (2002). Will economic crises in Africa weaken rural-urban ties? Insights from child fosterage trends in Cameroon. Rural Sociology, 67(2), 278–298. doi:10.1111/j.1549-0831.2002.tb00104.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emovon, S. O., Gutura, P., & Ntombela, N. H. (2019). Caring for non-relative foster children in South Africa: Voices of female foster parents. Ubuntu: Journal of Conflict and Social Transformation, 8(2), 9–30. doi:10.31920/2050-4950/2019/8n2a1
   Google Scholar
• FAO. (2002). The impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural production and mainstreaming HIV/AIDS messages into agricultural extension in Uganda. Retrieved November 30, 2016, from http://www.fao.org/3/a-ac912e.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Foster, G., Makufa, C., Drew, R., & Kralovec, E. (1997). Factors leading to the establishment of child headed households: The case of Zimbabwe. Health Transition Review, 7(2), 155–168. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40652332
   Google Scholar
• Foster, G., & Williamson, J. (2000). A review of current literature of the impact of HIV/AIDS on children in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS, 14(3), S275–S284.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gibson, M., & Mace, R. (2005). Helpful grandmothers in rural Ethiopia: A study of the effect of Kin on child survival and growth. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(6), 469–482. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goudet, S. M., Kimani-Murage, E. W., Wekesah, F., Wanjohi, M., Griffiths, P. L., Bogin, B., & Madise, N. (2017). How does poverty affect children’s nutrition status in Nairobi slums? A qualitative study of the root causes of undernutrition. Public Health Nutrition, 20(4), 608–619. doi:10.1017/S1368980016002445
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, M. J., & Yeatman, S. (2012). The relationship between orphanhood and child fostering in sub-Saharan Africa, 1990s–2000s. Population Studies, 66(3), 279–295. doi:10.1080/00324728.2012.681682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gultie, T., Sisay, E., & Sebsibie, G. (2014). Nutritional status and associated factors among orphan children below the age of five years in Gondar city, Ethiopia. Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2(4), 179–184. doi:10.11648/j.jfns.20140204.23
   Google Scholar
• Habel, L., Clark, R. A., & Segal, L. (2013). Interest from tertiary educated persons in fostering children with higher care needs under a professional (paid) model compared with general foster care. Australian Social Work, 66(1), 8–25. doi:10.1080/0312407X.2012.732587
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadley, C. (2004). The costs and benefits of Kin: Kin networks and children’s health among the Pimbwe of Tanzania. Human Nature, 15(4), 377–395. doi:10.1007/s12110-004-1015-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, W. D. (1963). The evolution of altruistic behavior. The American Naturalist, 97(896), 354–356. doi:10.1086/497114
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, W. D. (1964a). The genetical evolution of social behavior. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 1–16. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, W. D. (1964b). The genetical evolution of social behavior. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 17–52. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ijarotimi, O. S. (2013). Determinants of childhood malnutrition and consequences in developing countries. Current Nutrition Reports, 2(3), 129–133. doi:10.1007/s13668-013-0051-5
   Google Scholar
• Isiugo-Abanihe, U. C. (1985, March). Child fosterage in West Africa. Population and Development Review, 11(1), 53–72. doi:10.2307/1973378
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalu, R. E., & Etim, K. D. (2018). Factors associated with malnutrition among under-five children in developing countries: A review. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 24(1), 69–74. doi:10.4314/gjpas.v24i1.8
   Google Scholar
• Kamali, A., Seeley, J. A., Nunn, A. J., Kengeya-Kayondo, J. F., Ruberantwari, A., & Mulder, D. W. (1996). The orphan problem: Experience of a sub-Saharan Africa rural population in the AIDs epidemic. AIDS CARE, 8(5), 509–516. doi:10.1080/09540129650125470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanjilal, B., Mazumdar, P. G., Mukherjee, M., & Rahman, M. H. (2010). Nutritional status of children in India: Household socio-economic condition as the contextual determinant. International Journal for Equity in Health, 9(19), 1–22. doi:10.1186/1475-9276-9-19
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan, M. H. R., and Shaw, J. E. (2011). Multilevel logistic regression analysis applied to binary contraceptive prevalence data. Journal of Data Science, 9, 93–110. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2019344
   Google Scholar
• Kimani-Murage, E. W., Holding, P. A., Fotso, J., Ezeh, A. C., Nyovani, J. M., Kahurani, E. N., & Zulu, E. M. (2010). Food security and nutritional outcomes among urban poor orphans in Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 88(2), S282–S297. doi:10.1007/s11524-010-9491-z
   Google Scholar
• Lindblade, K. A., Odhiamobo, F., Rosen, D. H., & DeCock, K. M. (2003). Health and nutritional status of orphans<6 years old cared for by relatives in western Kenya. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 8(1), 67–72. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.00987.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhavan, S. (2004). Fosterage patterns in the age of AIDs: Continuity and change. Social Science & Medicine, 58(7), 1443–1454. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00341-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madhavan, S., Myroniuk, T. W., Kuhn, R., & Collinson, M. A. (2017). Household structure vs. composition: Understanding gendered effects on educational progress in rural South Africa. Demographic Research, 37, 1891–1916. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2017.37.59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magadi, M. A. (2011). Household and community HIV/AIDS status and child malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from the demographic and health surveys. Social Science & Medicine, 73(3), 436–446. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.05.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McElroy, T. A., Atim, S., Larson, C. P., & Armstrong, R. W. (2012). Risks to early childhood health and development in the post conflict transition of northern Uganda. International Journal of Pediatrics, 12, 1–16. doi:10.1155/2012/820290
   Google Scholar
• Merlo, J., Chaix, B., Ohlsson, H., Beekman, A., Johnell, K., Hjerpe, P., Rstam, L., & Larsen, K. (2006). A brief conceptual tutorial of multilevel analysis in social epidemiology: Using measures of clustering in multilevel logistic regression to investigate contextual phenomena. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(4), 290–297. doi:10.1136/jech.2004.029454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minoiu, C., & Shemyakina, O. N. (2012). Armed conflict, household victimization, and child health in Cote d’Ivoire. Working Paper Series. Retrieved April 1, 2016, from http://www.ecineq.org/milano/WP/ECINEQ2012-245.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Mishra, V., Arnold, F., Otieno, F., Cross, A., & Hong, R. (2007). Education and nutritional status of orphans and children of HIV-infected parents in Kenya. AIDS Education and Prevention, 19(5), 383–395. doi:10.1521/aeap.2007.19.5.383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moses, L. Y. A. (2013). Orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in Uganda; are orphans more malnourished than non-orphans. Social Sciences, 2(2), 58–65. doi:10.11648/j.ss.20130202.16
   Google Scholar
• Muga, G. O., & Onyango-Ouma, W. (2009). Changing household composition and food security among the elderly caretakers in rural western Kenya. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 24(3), 259–272. doi:10.1007/s10823-008-9090-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mulder, M. B. (2007). Hamilton’s rule and Kin competition: The kipsigis case. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 229–312. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndirangu, M., Wariero, J. O., Sachs, S. E., Masibo, P., & Deckelbaum, R. J. (2011). Nutritional status of under-five children in HIV-affected households in western Kenya. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 32(2), 159–167. doi:10.1177/156482651103200208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. (2013). The demographic and health surveys. Retrieved May 29, 2019, from https://dhsprogram.com/data/available-datasets.cfm
   Google Scholar
• Nkurunziza, S., Meessen, B., Van geertruyden, J., & Korachias, C. (2017). Determinants of stunting among Burundian children aged 6–23 months: Evidence from a national cross-sectional household survey, 2014. BMC Pediatrics, 17(1), 1–14. doi:10.1186/s12887-017-0929-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nores, M., & Barnett, W. S. (2010). Benefits of early childhood interventions across the world: (Under) investing in the very young. Economics of Education Review, 29(2), 271–282. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.09.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norton, E. C., Wang, H., & Ai, C. (2004). Computing interaction effects and standard errors in logit and probit models. The Stata Journal: Promoting Communications on Statistics and Stata, 4(2), 154–167. doi:10.1177/1536867X0400400206
   Google Scholar
• Oleke, C., Blystad, A., Moland, K. M., Rekdal, O. B., & Heggenhougen, K. (2006). The varying vulnerability of African orphans. The case of Langi, Northern Uganda. Childhood, 13(2), 267–284. doi:10.1177/0907568206062943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Organization of African Unity (OAU). (1990). African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. 11 July 1990, CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990). Retrieved July 24, 2020, from https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38c18.html
   Google Scholar
• Owen (nee Watts), H., Nyamukapa, C., Beasley, M., Wambe, M., Jukes, M., Mason, P., & Gregson, S. (2009). Contrasting casual pathways contribute to poorer health and nutrition outcomes in orphans in Zimbabwe. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 4(4), 312–323. doi:10.1080/17450120903039977
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Panpanich, R., Brabin, B., Gonani, A., & Graham, S. (1999). Are orphans at increased risk of malnutrition in Malawi? Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 19(3), 279–285. doi:10.1080/02724939992374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, E. M., & Short, S. E. (2009). Grandmother coresidence, maternal orphans, and school enrollment in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Family Issues, 30(6), 813–836. doi:10.1177/0192513X09331921
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raphel, S. (2008). Eye on Washington kinship care and the situation for grandparents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21(2), 118–120. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2008.00132.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reynolds, L. (2016). Deciphering the “duty of support”: caring for young people in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Social Dynamics, 42(2), 253–272. doi:10.1080/02533952.2016.1218141
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryder, R. W., Kamenga, M., Nkusu, M., Batter, V., & Heyward, W. L. (1994). AIDS orphans in Kinshasa, Zaire: Incidence and socioeconomic consequences. AIDS, 8(5), 673–680. doi:10.1097/00002030-199405000-00015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarker, M., Neckermann, C., & Muller, O. (2005). Assessing the health status of younger AIDS and other orphans in Kampala, Uganda. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 10(3), 210–215. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01377.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schatz, E. (2007). “Taking care of my own blood”: Older women’s relationship to their households in rural South Africa. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 35(Supplement 69), 147–154. doi:10.1080/14034950701355676
   Google Scholar
• Schnettler, S., & Steinbach, A. (2011). How do biological and social kinship play out within families in the U.S.? An evolutionary perspective on perceived parents care and closeness in adolescents. Journal of Family Research, 23(2), 173–195. Retrieved from https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-381744
   Google Scholar
• Schrijner, S., & Smits, J. (2018a). Grandmothers and children's schooling in sub-Saharan Africa. Human Nature, 29(1), 65–89. doi:10.1007/s12110-017-9306-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schrijner, S., & Smits, J. (2018b). Grandparents and children’s stunting in sub-Saharan Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 205, 90–98. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sear, R., Mace, R., & McGregor, I. A. (2000). Maternal grandmothers improve nutritional status and survival of children in rural Gambia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 267(1453), 1641–1647. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, D., Tsheko, N., Mtero-Munyati, S., Segwabe, M., Chibatamoto, P., Mfecane, S., Chandiwana, B., Nkomo, N., Tlou, S., & Chitiyo, G. (2006). Towards a definition of orphaned and vulnerable children. AIDS and Behavior, 10(6), 619–626. doi:10.1007/s10461-006-9086-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-Rotabi, K., Roby, J. L., & McCreery Bunkers, K. (2017). Altruistic exploitation: Orphan tourism and global social work. British Journal of Social Work, 47(3), 648–665. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcv147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strassmann, B. I. (2011). Cooperation and competition in a cliff-dwelling people. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Supplement 2), 10894–10901. doi:10.1073/pnas.1100306108
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sturtevant, D., & Wimmer, J. S. (2014). Success and challenges of measuring program impacts: An international study of an infant nutrition program for AIDS orphans. Evaluation and Program Planning, 42, 50–56. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2013.09.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanga, P. T. (2013). The impact of the declining extended family support system on the education of orphans in Lesotho. African Journal of AIDS Research, 12(3), 173–183. doi:10.2989/16085906.2013.863217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thovoethin, P. S., & Ewalefoh, J. O. (2018). Universal old-age pension: Can Africa overcome it’s challenges? Africa’s Public Service Delivery and Performance Review, 6(1), a232. doi:10.4102/apsdpr.v6i1.232
   Google Scholar
• Toit, W. D., Westhuizen, M. V., & Alpaslan, N. (2016). Operationalising cluster foster care schemes as an alternative form of care. Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk, 52, 391–413.
   Google Scholar
• UNAIDS, UNICEF, and USAID. (2004). Children on the Brink 2004: “A joint report of new orphan estimates and a framework for action”. Retrieved May 20, 2019, from https://www.unicef.org/publications/cob_layout6-0.13.pdf
   Google Scholar
• UNCRC. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved November 15, 2019, from http://wunrn.org/reference/pdf/Convention_Rights_Child.PDF
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF. (2005). Guide to monitoring and evaluation of the national response for children orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS.
   Google Scholar
• Walsh, F. (2012). Family resilience: Strengths forged through adversity. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family process (4th ed., pp. 399–421). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Watts, H., Gregson, S., Saito, S., Lopman, B., Beasley, M., & Monasch, R. (2007). Poorer health and nutritional outcomes in orphans and vulnerable young children not explained by greater exposure to extreme poverty in Zimbabwe. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 12(5), 584–593. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01832.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wooldridge, J. M. (2000). Introductory econometrics: A modern approach. South-Western College.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2006). WHO Child Growth Standards. Length/height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length, weight-for-height and body mass index-for-age. Methods and Development. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/Technical_report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Yarney, L., Mba, C., Asampong, E., Darko, J., & Yarney, J. (2012). Is inheritance system a factor in the care of AIDS orphans? The Asante and Krobo of Ghana scenario. Mathematica Aeterna, 2(9), 735–759. doi:10.1186/s12889-014-1332-7
   Google Scholar
• Yendork, J. S., & Somhlaba, N. Z. (2015-2016). Does it still take the whole community to raise a child? An overview of the state of research on orphanhood in the African context and the way forward. Ghana International Journal of Mental Health, 6 &7, 58–59. Retrieved from http://apps.ug.edu.gh/ghana-ijmh/images/vol_6_7_2016.pdf#page=60
   Google Scholar
• Zidron, A. M., Juma, E., & Ice, G. H. (2009). Does being an orphan decrease the nutritional status of Luo children? American Journal of Human Biology, 21(6), 844–851. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar