Covid-19, communalism, and Islamophobia: India facing the disease

References

• 379 Indonesians among Foreigners from 40 Countries Attended Tablighi Jamaat Gathering: Sources. (2020, April 3). ANI. https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/379-indonesians-among-foreigners-from-40-countries-attended-tablighi-jamaat-gathering-sources20200403152720/ Accessed April 12, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• 6 Foreigners Sent Back from Attukal Pongala amid COVID-19 Outbreak. (2020, March 9). Onmanorama. https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2020/03/09/attukal-pongala-coronavirus-foreigners-sent-back-hotel-owners-action.html Accessed March 25, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Alam, A. (2009). Challenging the ashrafs: The politics of pasmanda muslim Mahaz1. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 29(2), 171–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000902943542
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, E., & Jaffrelot, C. (2018). Hindu nationalism and the ‘saffronisation of the public sphere’: An interview with christophe jaffrelot. Contemporary South Asia, 26(4), 468–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/09584935.2018.1545009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atlantic Council’s Digital Forensic Research Lab. (2020, March 17). US politicians exploit coronavirus fears with anti- Chinese Dog whistles. Medium. https://medium.com/dfrlab/u-s-politicians-exploit-coronavirus-fears-with-anti-chinese-dog-whistles-ff61c9d7e458 Accessed April 18, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Benton, A., & Dionne, K. Y. (2015). International political economy and the 2014 west African ebola outbreak. African Studies Review, 58(1), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1017/asr.2015.11
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhargava, R. (2007). On the persistent political under-representation of muslims in india. Law & Ethics of Human Rights, 1(1), 76–133. https://doi.org/10.2202/1938-2545.1003
   Google Scholar
• Bombay High Court. (2020). Konan Kodio and Ors. versus State of Maharashtra and Allied Petitions (Cri. WP 548/20 & Ors.).
   Google Scholar
• Bose, S. (2005). Kashmir: Roots of conflict, paths to peace. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Butalia, U. (1998). The other side of silence: Voices from the partition of India. Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Chandna, H. (2020, April 18). 30% of India’s COVID-19 positive caseload linked to tablighi jamaat meet, says govt. The Print. https://theprint.in/health/30-of-indias-covid-19-positive-caseload-linked-to-tablighi-jamaat-meet-says-govt/404426/ Accessed April 19, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Chandra, D. (2020, April 6). Man ‘spitting’ on fruits held in MP, viral video as Old as 16 Feb. The Quint. https://www.thequint.com/news/india/man-spitting-on-fruits-held-in-madhya-pradesh-raisen-viral-video-as-old-as-16-february Accessed April 6, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Coronavirus Can Be Treated by Cow Urine, Dung: Hindu Mahasabha President. (2020, February 1). Guwahati Plus. https://www.guwahatiplus.com/daily-news/coronavirus-can-be-treated-by-cow-urine-dung-hindu-mahasabha-president Accessed March 6, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Coronavirus: Group Hosts ‘Cow Urine Party’, Says COVID-19 Due to Meat-Eaters. (2020, March 14). The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/coronavirus-group-hosts-cow-urine-party-says-covid-19-due-to-meat-eaters/article31070516.ece Accessed March 18, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Coronavirus: India ‘super Spreader’ Quarantines 40,000 People. (2020, March 27). BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-52061915 Accessed March 30, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Coronavirus in India: Can Cow Dung and Urine Help Cure the Novel Coronavirus? (2020, February 5). Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/health-news/coronavirus-in-india-can-cow-dung-and-urine-help-cure-the-novel-coronavirus/articleshow/73952691.cms Accessed March 12, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Coronavirus: Islamophobia Concerns after India Mosque Outbreak. (2020, April 3). BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-52147260 Accessed April 8, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Das, T. (2020, June 24). Indians Who made COVID ‘muslim virus’ after tablighi jamaat Are cheering odisha’s rath yatra. The Print. https://theprint.in/opinion/pov/indians-who-made-covid-muslim-virus-after-tablighi-jamaat-are-cheering-odishas-rath-yatra/447717/. Accessed June 25, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Dayal, S., & Manral, M. S. (2020, April 7). COVID-19 rumours linked to 3 attacks in Delhi, gurgaon. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/coronavirus/covid-19-rumours-linked-to-3-attacks-in-delhi-gurgaon-6350696/ Accessed April 9, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Delhi HC to Hear Harsh Mander’s Petition to Book Kapil Mishra, Anurag Thakur and Parvesh Singh on March 12. (2020, March 6). Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-hc-to-hear-harsh-mander-s-petition-on-kapil-mishra-anurag-thakur-and-parvesh-singh-s-hate-speech-on-march-12/story-DOY66f9MFUKzK4wkqDGVvN.html Accessed July 24.
   Google Scholar
• Donthi, P. (2013, March 23). How Mufti Mohammad Sayeed Shaped the 1987 Elections in Kashmir. The Caravan. https://caravanmagazine.in/vantage/mufti-mohammad-sayeed-shaped-1987-kashmir-elections Accessed March 25, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Duflo, E., & Banerjee, A. (2020, March 29). A Prescription for Action: Nine Steps after the next 21 Days. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/india-lockdown-coronavirus-infection-abhijit-banerjee-esther-duflo-6336624/ Accessed March 30, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Eamon, W. (1998). Cannibalism and contagion: Framing syphilis in counter-reformation Italy*. Early Science and Medicine, 3(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1163/157338298X00013
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eichelberger, L. (2007). Sars and New York’s chinatown: The politics of risk and blame during an epidemic of fear. Social Science & Medicine, 65(6), 1284–1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.04.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensure Strict Compliance of Treaty on Banning Biological Weapons: India. (2020, March 27). The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/ensure-strict-compliance-of-treaty-on-banning-biological-weapons-india/articleshow/74852870.cms Accessed March 28, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Fairchild, A. L. (2004). Policies of inclusion. American Journal of Public Health, 94(4), 528–539. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.4.528
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farooq, G. (2017). Politics of fake news: How WhatsApp became a potent propaganda tool in India. Media Watch, 9(1), 106–117. https://doi.org/10.15655/mw/2018/v9i1/49279
   Google Scholar
• ‘Figures Tell Truth’: RSS Leader On Virus Cases After Delhi Mosque Event. (2020, April 6). NDTV. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-rsss-manmohan-vaidya-on-covid-19-cases-linked-to-tablighi-jamaat-event-figures-tell-trut-2206960 Accessed April 8, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Gao, Z. (2022). Sinophobia during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Identity Belonging, and International Politics. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 56(2), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-021-09659-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gettleman, J., Schultz, K., & Raj, S. (2020, April 12). In India, coronavirus fans religious hatred. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/12/world/asia/india-coronavirus-muslims-bigotry.html Accessed April 19, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Girard, R. (1979). Violence and the sacred. The John Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Girard, R. (1986). The scapegoat. The John Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Girard, R. (1987). Things hidden since the foundation of the world: Research undertaken in collaboration with jean-michel ougbourlian and Guy lefort. Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Girard, R., & Williams, J. G. (2000). The anthropology of the cross: A conversation with rené girard james. In J. G. Williams (Ed.), The girard reader (pp. 261–288). The Crossroad Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• ‘Go to Pakistan’, BJP MP Tells Poet Munawwar Rana’s Daughter. (2020, February 10). The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/go-to-pakistan-bjp-mp-tells-poet-munawwar-ranas-daughter/articleshow/74060836.cms Accessed July 24, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Haokip, T. (2021). From ‘Chinky’ to ‘Coronavirus’: Racism against Northeast Indians during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Asian Ethnicity, 22(2), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2020.1763161
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasan, Z. (2011). Politics of inclusion: Castes, minorities, and affirmative action. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• In Unprecedented Move, Modi Government Sends Former CJI Ranjan Gogoi to Rajya Sabha. (2020, March 16). The Wire. https://thewire.in/law/cji-ranjan-gogoi-rajya-sabha-nomination Accessed March 20, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Irwin, J. F. (2008). Scapegoats and epidemic disease. In J. P. Bryne (Ed.), Encyclopedia of pestilence, pandemics, and plagues (pp. 618–620). Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jha, S. (2020, May 11). Tablighi jamaat members should Be dealt with like terrorists for spreading coronavirus: BJP MP. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/tablighi-jamaat-members-should-be-dealt-with-like-terrorists-for-spreading-coronavirus-bjp-mp-1676872-2020-05-11 Accessed May 15, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Jia, D. (2020, February 14). Scientists slam Indian study that fueled coronavirus rumors. Nikkei Asian Review-Caixin. https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Caixin/Scientists-slam-Indian-study-that-fueled-coronavirus-rumors Accessed May 24, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Kewalramani, M. (2020). Survey Findings: Perceptions of PRC amid Covid-19 Pandemic. Takshashila. https://takshashila.org.in/survey-findings-perceptions-of-prc-amid-covid-19-pandemic/ Accessed July 13, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, F. (2020, June 13). More muslims Are killed in riots, then more of them Get arrested, it’s Not New: Mahmood madani. The Print. https://theprint.in/india/more-muslims-are-killed-in-riots-then-more-of-them-get-arrested-its-not-new-mahmood-madani/440625/ Accessed July 24, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K., & Updegraff, J. A. (2016). Fear of ebola. Psychological Science, 27(7), 935–944. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616642596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunal, P. (2020, March 16). Coronavirus: Anti-Chinese conspiracy theories Go viral in India, amid frayed ties. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/health-environment/article/3075445/coronavirus-anti-chinese-conspiracy-theories-go-viral%0ACoronavirus. Accessed April 17, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Lakhs Celebrate Attukal Pongala amid Coronavirus Fears; 6 Foreigners Sent Back. (2020, March 9). The Week. https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/09/lakhs-celebrate-attukal-pongala-amid-coronavirus-fears-6-foreigners-sent-back.html Accessed March 21, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, J. (2018). Who is the true Halalkhor? Genealogy and ethics in dalit Muslim oral traditions. Contributions to Indian Sociology, 52(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0069966717742223
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markel, H., & Stern, A. M. (2002). The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 757–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.00030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, K. A. (2012). Mobile migrants, mobile germs: Migration, contagion, and boundary-building in Shenzhen, China after SARS. Medical Anthropology, 31(2), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740.2011.610845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• M’Bokolo, E. (1982). Peste et société urbaine à Dakar : l'épidémie de 1914. Cahiers d’études Africaines, 22(85), 13–46. doi:10.3406/cea.1982.2272
   Google Scholar
• McClain, C. (1988). Of medicine, race, and American Law: The bubonic plague outbreak of 1900. Law & Social Inquiry, 13(3), 447–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1988.tb01126.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ministry of Home Affairs. (2020). ‘Order.’ Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. https://www.thehindu.com/news/resources/article31711125.ece/binary/MHAorderDatedMay30.pdf Accessed 25 July 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Modi, N. (2020, March 24). PM Modi’s Address to the Nation on Vital Aspects Relating to COVID-19 Menace (24 March 2020). https://www.narendramodi.in/text-of-prime-minister-narendra-modi-s-address-to-the-nation-on-vital-aspects-relating-to-the-menace-of-covid-19-548941 Accessed July 13, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Monson, S. (2017). Ebola as African: American media discourses of panic and otherization. Africa Today, 63(3).
   Google Scholar
• Narayanan, V., Kollanyi, B., Hajela, R., Barthwal, A., Marchal, N., & Howard, P. N. (2019). News and Information over Facebook and WhatsApp during the Indian Election Campaign. The Computational Propaganda Project (COMPROP). Accessed July 13, 2020: https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/india-election-memo/.
   Google Scholar
• Nelkin, D., & Gilman, S. L. (1988). Placing blame for devastating disease. Social Research, 55(3), 361–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng, R. (2021). Anti-Asian sentiments during the COVID-19 pandemic across 20 countries: Analysis of a 12-billion-word news media database. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(12), Article e28305. doi:10.2196/28305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nizamuddin Markaz: 960 Foreigners Blacklisted or Attending Tablighi Jamaat. (2020, April 2). Financial express. https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/nizamuddin-markaz-960-foreigners-blacklisted-for-violating-visa-norms/1917407/. Accessed May 31, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• On First Day of Nationwide Lockdown, Adityanath Attends Ram Navami Event in Ayodhya. (2020, March 25). The Wire. https://thewire.in/politics/coronavirus-yogi-adityanath-lockdown-ram-navami-ayodhya Accessed March 25, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, G. (1999). Can a muslim Be an Indian? Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41(4), 608–629. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417599003072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perrigo, B. (2020). It Was already dangerous to Be muslim in India. Then came the coronavirus.’ Time, April 3, 2020. Accessed April 13, 2020: https://time.com/5815264/coronavirus-india-islamophobia-coronajihad/.
   Google Scholar
• PM Modi Says Covid-19 Does Not See Race, Religion, Colour, Caste and Creed. (2020, April 19). Hindustan Times. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-says-covid-19-does-not-see-race-religion-colour-caste-creed/story-2vkItERJbpkl4O9Qn3d4hN.html Accessed April 27, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2016). Knowledge, risk perceptions, and xenophobic attitudes: Evidence from Italy during the ebola outbreak. Risk Analysis, 36(10), 2000–2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pregnant Jamia Student Safoora Zargar Gets Bail In Delhi Riots Case. (2020, June 23). NDTV. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/safoora-zargar-pregnant-jamia-miliia-islamia-student-arrested-in-april-in-delhi-riots-case-granted-bail-by-high-court-2250814 Accessed July 25, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Ranjan, A. (2018). Introduction. In A. Ranjan (Ed.), Partition of India: Post colonial legacies (pp. 1–20). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ranjan, A. (2019). Changing ideas of nation and nationalism in hindi cinema: Construing the Indian middle class ideology. Economic and Political Weekly, 54(26-27), 65–72.
   Google Scholar
• Ranjan, A. (2020). Workers at time of COVID-19: Walking towards an uncertain future. Sambhasan, 1(2), 78–86.
   Google Scholar
• Reny, T. T., & Barreto, M. A. (2022). Xenophobia in the time of pandemic: Othering, anti-Asian attitudes, and COVID-19. Politics, Groups, and Identities. Advance Online publication, 10(2), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1769693
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberto, K. J., Johnson, A. F., & Rauhaus, B. M. (2020). Stigmatization and prejudice during the COVID-19 pandemic. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 42(3), 364–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2020.1782128
   Google Scholar
• Safi, M., Ellis-Petersen, H., & Davidson, H. (2020, June 17). Soldiers fell to their deaths as India and China’s troops fought with rocks. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/17/shock-and-anger-in-india-after-worst-attack-on-china-border-in-decades Accessed June 18, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Sakki, I., & Castrén, L. (2022). Dehumanization through humour and conspiracies in online hate towards Chinese people during the COVID-19 Pandemic. British Journal of Social Psychology, 61(4), 1418–1438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheikh, S. (2020, March 6). Critics of India’s modi government face sedition charges. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/critics-of-indias-modi-government-face-sedition-charges/ Accessed July 24, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Sikand, Y. (2001). A new Indian Muslim agenda: The Dalit Muslims and the All-India Backward Muslim Morcha. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 21(2), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360200120092860
   Google Scholar
• Social Distancing Forgotten, Country Raises a Racket at 5 Pm. (2020, March 22). The Wire. https://thewire.in/society/coronavirus-janata-curfew-racket Accessed March 24, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Sud, V., & Sharma, A. (2020). ‘India urges citizens to avoid mass gatherings, just days before.’ CNN, March 6, 2020. Accessed July 18, 2020: https://edition.cnn.com/world/live-news/coronavirus-outbreak-03-06-20-intl-hnk/h_e6f6910cd9a6c554102af2b7648fe11d.
   Google Scholar
• Tablighi Event: Shobha Smells ‘Corona Jihad.’. (2020, April 4). The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/tablighi-event-shobha-smells-corona-jihad/article31259288.ece Accessed April 7 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Tablighi Jamaat: Supreme Court Says Blacklisted Foreign Nationals can Approach Concerned Authorities. (2020, July 2). Scroll.in. https://scroll.in/latest/966285/tablighi-jamaat-supreme-court-says-blacklisted-foreign-nationals-can-approach-concerned-authorities. Accessed May 31, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• The Quint. (2020, April 7). Heckling to Assault: Karnataka Sees Attacks on Muslims Amid COVID-19 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2kx3KRQCnQ. Accessed April 9, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Ticktin, M. (2017). Invasive pathogens?: Rethinking notions of otherness. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 84(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2017.0005
   Google Scholar
• Trauner, J. B. (1978). The Chinese as medical scapegoats in San Francisco, 1870-1905. California History, 57(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.2307/25157817
   Google Scholar
• Trivedi, P., Goli, S., Uddin, F., & Kumar, S. (2016). Does untouchability exist among muslims? Economic & Political Weekly, 51(15), 2349–8846.
   Google Scholar
• Tur, J. K. (2020, March 21). India’ s fourth COVID casualty attended sikh hola mohalla festival in anandpur sahib; infected seven family members. The Caravan. https://caravanmagazine.in/health/india-fourth-covid-casualty-attended-hola-mohalla-anandpur-sahib-infected-seven-family-members Accessed March 27, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• White, C. (2010). Déjà Vu: Leprosy and immigration discourse in the twenty-first century United States. Leprosy Review, 81(1), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.47276/lr.81.1.17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, S. I. (2004). Votes and violence: Electoral competition and ethnic riots in India. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511510458
   Google Scholar
• Worldometer. (2020, March). India. Worldometers.Info. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/india/.
   Google Scholar
• Yadav, Y. (2003, July 13). The patterns and lessons. Frontline. https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/article30215038.ece Accessed July 13, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao, L. (2020, March 12). 2/2 CDC was caught on the spot. When did patient zero begin in US? How many people are infected? What [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/zlj517/status/1238111898828066823?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw.
   Google Scholar