A Deadly Triple Threat: Three Layers of U.S. Racial Inequity in COVID Infections and Deaths

References

• Calvillo, D. P., B. J. Ross, R. J. B. Garcia, T. J. Smelter, and A. M. Rutchick. 2020. “Political Ideology Predicts Perceptions of the Threat of COVID-19 (And Susceptibility to Fake News about It).” Social Psychological and Personality Science 11 (8): 1119–1128. doi:10.1177/1948550620940539.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook Political Report. August 2021. https://cookpolitical.com/2020-national-popular-vote-tracker
   Google Scholar
• Crowd Counting Consortium data. 2021. https://sites.google.com/view/crowdcountingconsortium/view-download-the-data?authuser=0
   Google Scholar
• Dave, D. M., A. I. Friedson, K. Matsuzawa, J. J. Sabia, and S. Safford. 2020. “Black Lives Matter Protests, Social Distancing, and COVID-19” NBER Working Paper No. 27408.
   Google Scholar
• Gross, C. P., U. R. Essien, S. Pasha, J. R. Gross, S. Wang, and M. Nunez-Smith. 2020. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Population-Level Covid-19 Mortality.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 35 (10): 3097–3099. doi:10.1007/s11606-020-06081-w.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman, G., S. Kim, J. M. Rexer, and H. Thirumurty. 2020. “Political Partisanship Influences Behavioral Responses to Governors’ Recommendations for COVID-19 Prevention in the United States.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 (39, Sept): 24144–24153. doi:10.1073/pnas.2007835117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrell, S. J. P., T. I. Burford, B. N. Cage, T. M. Nelson, S. Shearon, A. Thompson, and S. Green. 2011. “Multiple Pathways Linking Racism to Health Outcomes.” Du Bois Rev 8 (1): 143–157. doi:10.1017/S1742058X11000178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hearst, M. O., J. M. Oakes, and P. J. Johnson. 2008. “The Effect of Racial Residential Segregation on Black Infant Mortality.” American Journal of Epidemiology 168 (11): 11. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry-Nickie, M., and J. Hudak. 2020. Social Distancing in Black and White Neighborhoods in Detroit: A Data-driven Look at Vulnerable Communities. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Understanding and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care; B. D. Smedley, A. Y. Stith, and A. R. Nelson, editors. 2003. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). Available from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK220358/
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, S. A., R. T. Anderson, N. J. Johnson, and P. D. Sorlie. 2000. “The Relation of Residential Segregation to All-Cause Mortality: A Study in Black and White.” AM J Public Health 90: 615–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppel, R. A., Jr., R. Gebeloff, K. K. R. Lai, W. Wright, and M. Smith. 2020. “The Fullest Look at Racial Inequality of Coronavirus.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/05/us/coronavirus-latinos-african-americans-cdc-data.html
   Google Scholar
• Reeves, R. V., and T. Ford. 2020. COVID-19 Much More Fatal for Men, Especially When Taking Age into Account. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Stier, A. J., M. G. Berman, and L. M. A. Bettencourt. 2003. “COVID-19 Attack Rate Increases with City Size.” https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.10376
   Google Scholar
• Wadhera, R. K., P. Wadhera, P. Gaba, J. F. Figueroa, K. E. J. Maddox, R. W. Yeh, and C. Shen. 2020. “Variations in COVID-19 Hospitalizations and Deaths across New York City Boroughs.” JAMA Network 323 (21): 2111–2210.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R. 2018. “Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race Related Stressors.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59 (4): 466–485. doi:10.1177/0022146518814251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, E. J., A. J. Walker, K. Bhaskaran, S. Bacon, C. Bates, C. E. Morton, H. J. Curtis, et al. 2020. “Factors Associated with COVID-19-related Death Using OpenSAFELY.” Nature 584: 430–436. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 2020. Rural Communities. Center for Disease and Control Prevention, Atlanta.
   Google Scholar
• 2020. Weekly Updates by Select Demographic and Geographic Characteristics. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta.
   Google Scholar