References
- Young , Robert J.C. 2001 . “ 'Colonialism and the desiring machine' ” . In Postcolonial Discourses. An Anthology Edited by: Castle , Gregory . 74 – 98 . Oxford Although these formulations reproduce some of the strongest arguments the communist historiographies of the successor states have made with respect to the nationality question in the Habsburg Monarchy, I am using them not as a reference to this historiographie tradition but as indicators of the existence of a 'subaltern' discourse, as defined by the postcolonial analysis of power relations. See, for example,
- Sugar , Peter F. 2000 . The more it changes, the more Hungarian nationalism remains the same' . Austrian History Yearbook , XXXI : 127 – 55 . Recently, Peter F. Sugar has attempted, under a provocative title, to generate a new appraisal of Hungarian nationalism. The richness of his analysis notwithstanding, there is little change from the classical perspective with regards to Hungarian nationalism as mainly a 'defensive attitude' towards others. See
- !Few are those who aimed at enlarging the explanatory framework of the Habsburg Monarchy by introducing a systematic analysis of the interaction, distribution and dissemination of various ideas within its ethno-geographical diversity. Amongst those of the Old school', I am particularly indebted to Sir Lewis Namier, Vanished Supremacies. Essays on European History 1812-1918, London, 1958. For the 'new school', I should like to refer to Peter Hanak and Vilmos Sandor, Studien zur Geschichte der österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie, Budapest, 1961; Robert Evans, Rudolf II and His World. A Study in Intellectual History 1576-1612, Oxford, 1973; and The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy. An Interpretation, Oxford, 1979; Lászlo Péter and Robert B. Pynsent, Intellectuals and the Future in the Habsburg Monarchy 1890-1914, London, 1988.
- !As argued, for example, by Baka, 'A Magyar nemzetállamiság teoretikusai: Grünwald Béla, Concha Gyözö, Beksics Gusztáv', Acta Juridica Academiae Scientiarum Hungariae, 28,2 (1985), pp. 327-58.
- !For an interesting discussion of how nationalism 'speaks Gemeinschaff, see Ernest Gellner, Language and Solitude. Wittgenstein, Malinowski and the Habsburg Dilemma, Cambridge, England, 1998. As for the emergence of illiberalism in late nineteenth-century Hungary, useful is Maria M. Kovács, Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics. Hungary from Habsburgs to the Holocaust, New York, 1994.
- Niederhauser , Emil . 1993 . “ The Rise of Nationality in Eastern Europe, Budapest, 1982, and The national question in Hungary' ” . In The National Question in Europe in Historical Context Edited by: Teich , Mikulás and Porter , Roy . 248 – 69 . Cambridge , , England
- !See, especially, Kenan Malik, The Meaning of Race. Race, History and Culture in Western Society, London, 1996; Philomena Essed and David Theo Goldberg, eds, Race Critical Theories. Text and Context, Oxford, 2002.
- !For this transformation see, Hannah Franziska Augustein, ed., Race. The Origin of An Idea, 1760-1850, Bristol, 1996; and Emmanuel C. Eze, Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader, Cambridge, 1997.
- !Mosse, Racism and nationalism', p. 1382.
- !See, for example, Jozsef Galantai, Der Österreichisch-Ungarische Dualismus, 1867-1918, Budapest, 1990; and Ludwig Gogolak, 'Ungarns Nationalitätengesetze und das Problem des Magyarischen National- und Zentralstaates', in Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch, eds, Die Habsburger-monarchie 1848-1918, vol. III, part 2, Wien, 1980, pp. 1207-1303.
- Schellenberg , James A. 1982 . The Science of Conflict 19 – 38 . Oxford
- Renan , Ernest . 1990 . “ 'What is a nation?' ” . In Nation and Narration Edited by: Bhabha , Homi K. 8 – 22 . London and New York For the classical discussion of these differences, see
- !For the context of this transformation, see Michael D. Biddiss, The Age of the Masses. Ideas and Society in Europe since 1870, Sussex, 1977.
- !Zsolt Beöthy, A magyar irodalom kis-türte, Budapest, 1896.
- !Petru Maior, Istoria pentru biceputurile romänilor tn Dachia, Buda, 1812.
- Robertson , Ritchie and Timms , Edward , eds. 1994 . The Habsburg Legacy. National Identity in Historical Perspective 17 – 18 . Edinburgh The transition from natio Hungarica (that referred mainly to the nobility and the honorationes, Le. educated county officials and professionals) to magyar nemzet started much earlier, at the beginning of the nineteenth century. As Moritz Csáky suggested, the process was accompanied by a reconceptualisation of the notion of 'Hungarus' and the emergence of the 'Magyar', as the new ethno-sign of personal identification. See Moritz Csáky, Von der Aufklärung zum Liberalismus: Studien zum Frühliberalismus in Ungarn, Wien, 1981; and tlungarus' oder "Magyar": Zwei Varianten des ungarishen Nationalbewußtseins zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts', Annales Universitatis Scientarum Budapestinensis, 22 (1982), pp. 71-84. However, as Lászlo Péter pointed out 'the magyar nemzet concept which attracted loyalty from all classes, rather than from nobility only, emerged when, and to the extent that, after 1830 a growing proportion of the nobility accepted Széchenyi's vision of the future: the creation of a Hungarian civu society'. Laszlo Péter, language, the constitution, and the past in Hungarian nationalism', in. Conversely, in fin-de-siede Hungary, as I have already mentioned, Széchenyi's programme of building a civil society had largely failed. Magyarisation and assimilation fundamentally questioned the civic and equalitarian dimensions of Hungarian society
- Beksics . La Question Roumaine 167
- !Ibid., p. 168.
- !the chapter 'A nemzeti eszme a fajok kuzdelmeben', in Beksics, A roman kérdés, pp. 153-57.
- !'A törtenelem összes tanusagai bizonyitják, hogy azon fajok, a melyekben hatalmasan rnukod o'serök nem léteztek, elbuktak a létért folytatott kuzdelemben. A faji erok ép ugy velök szuletnek a fajokkal, mint az egyéni tulajdonságok az egyénekkel. A hatalmas egyéniségek inkább szuletnek mint képzdnek; szorgalom es torekvés sokat potolhat, de soha sem potolhatja teljesen az öröklött kiválo tehetségeket.' In Beksics, A roman lardés, p. 188.
- !the chapter 'A fajokat fenttarto erok. (Vallás ées nemzeti eszme)', in Beksics, A roman kérdés, pp. 147-57.
- !lia az erdélyi protestánsok volnnak, nem volna roman kérdésünk.' In Beksics, A roman kérdés, p. 51.
- !Ibid., pp. 193-94.
- !Ibid., p. 230.
- Márki , Sándor and Beksics , Gusztáv , eds. 1898 . A Modem Magyarorszg (1848-1896) 803 – 834 . Budapest
- 1985 . The liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist, 169 – 70 . New York Another example was Mihály Réz, professor at the Academy of Law at Eperjes and later Kolozsvár (Cluj). As Gabor Vermes considered: 'Réz brought to the conservative reading public a blatant and unapologetic exposition of Social Darwinist views, deriding what he considered were the sentimental, humanitarian and universalistic aspects of liberalism. Rather, Réz argued, in the struggle among nations, ethnic minorities and races, the ultimate goal of all these groups was domination and success, not liberty and equality. The supreme task ought to be strengthening the state and mobilising the nation for the exercise of Magyar supremacy; anything else would amount to self-delusion, leading to humiliation and ultimate defeat'. In Gabor Verities, Istvan Tisza.. Mihaly Réz was a contributor to Magyar Figyelo, the journal of István Tisza. In his book, Magyar fafpolitika, he argued that 'A magyar fajpolitika helyes eszközeinek keresése jelen munka feladata. Lesznek, kik azt nem tartjak actualis kerdesnek; az en nézetem ewel homlokegyenest elemkezo' ['The aim of the present work is to find the adequate needs for the Hungarian racial politics. There are some who do not think that the problem is current, but my opinion is different']. In Réz, A magyar fajpolitika, Budapest, 1905, p. v
- !One eloquent example is Edward A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest (1867-1876). Such strategies of national identification are well described by Hugh A. MacDougall, Racial Myth in English History. Trojans, Teutons, and Anglo-Saxons, Hanover and London, 1982.
- !Mosse, Racism and nationalism', p. 1382.
- Barnard , RM. 1983 . National culture and political legitimacy . Journal of fhe History of Ideas , 44 : 231 – 53 .
- Bernasconi , Robert , ed. 2001 . “ 'Who invented the concept of race? Kant's role in the enlightenment construction of race' ” . In Race 11 – 36 . Oxford Nothing has been more debated than with whom and when did the idea of race originate. Robert Bernasconi offered, recently, an interesting approach in his
- Wade , Maurice L. 2000 . “ 'From eighteenth- to nineteenth-century racial science: continuity and change' ” . In Race and Racism in Theory and Practice, Edited by: Lang , Berel . 27 – 43 . New York For the numerous examples, see
- !For discussion of the malign association of biological theories and warfare, see Paul Crook, Darwinism, War and History. The Debate over the Biology of War from the 'Origin of Species' to the First World War, Cambridge, 1994.
- !Keith Hitchins, The Rumanian question in Hungary. Aurel C. Popovici and the Replica', österreichische Osfhefte, 14, 3 (1972), p. 285.
- Ttirda , Marius . 2001 . “ 'Deciding the national capital: Budapest, Vienna, Bucharest, and Transylvanien Romanian political culture' ” . In Tradition and Modernity in Romanian Culture and Civilization 1600-2000 Edited by: Treptow , Kurt W. 95 – 114 . Iasi
- Turda , Marius . 1998 . “ 'Aurel C. Popovici's nationalism and its political representation in the Habsburg Empire (1890-1910)' ” . In The Garden and the Workshop: Disseminating Cultural History in East-Central Europe Edited by: Turda , Marius . 49 – 73 . Budapest
- Kontler , László . 1999 . Millennium in Central Europe. A History of Hungary 241 Budapest Both Széchenyi and Eötvös acknowledged that the problem of multiple nationalisms in the Carpathian basin would ultimately be the insoluble dilemma of Hungarian liberalism and indeed of the Hungarian state. Széchenyi, for example, assumed that the extension of the rights of nobles to non-nobles would result in the replacement of nation Hungerten with a 'modern Magyar nation' of emancipated citizens. At the same time, language and ethnicity alone-as championed by non-Hungarians-were not sufficient, they argued, to constitute a Nation, unless that nation possesses a historical past and a historic state. For a good discussion of these arguments, see
- !The original Hungarian paragraph reads as follows: Tót, szerb s a többi kulturárol, mint nemzetalkotá es társadalomképzo' elemro'l felesleges beszélni. Egydül a romansagnal érdemes vizsgálni azt a kérdést, vajjon nincsenek-e benne nagyobb kifejlodésre képes, oly kulturai elemek, a melyek kulutrai szakadást létesithtnének a magyar faj és a roman nép közt s az utobbit különallo társadalommá s majdan nemzetté alakfthatnák át, a mint átalakult a horvát nép (a hosszu századokon keresztul, elszakadva a magyar kulturátol) horvát nemzetté'. In Beksics, A roman kérdés, p. 159.
- !See, John S. Haller Jr, Outcasts from Evolution. Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900, Urbana, 1971; and Douglas A. Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victorians. English Attitudes to the Negro in UK Mid-nineteenth Century, Leicester, 1978.
- !On Beksics' life, see Révai Nagy Lexicona, Vol. 3, Budapest, 1911, pp. 14-15 and Magyar Nagylexiton, Budapest, 1994, p. 496.
- Zsuzsa , L. Nagy . 1963 . A "Nemzeti Állam" Eszméje Beksics Gusztavnal . Szazadok, 97 , 6 : 1242 – 68 . For a good analysis of Beksics' idea of national state, see
- !A roman Tardés es a fajok tiarcza Europában es Magyarorszägon, Budapest, 1895.
- !A magyar faj terjeszkedése es nemzeti konszolidácziónk, Budapest, 1896.
- !'A roman kérdés a fajok harczanak csak egyik jelensége, s e szempontbol sem speczifikus magyar-roman kérdés.' In Beksics, A romáan Isérdés, p. 127 (ail translations from Hungarian are mine, unless otherwise indicated). In the French version of this book, he further elaborated on this issue: L'evolution prochaine de la lutte des races en Orient, intéresse l'Europe entière. Pour les Hongrois, la question a un intérét tout particulière puisqu'il s'agit de leur existence. Mais il convient de l'envisager à un point de vue general, et de montrer la lutte entre les races magyare et roumaine dans l'horizon europene. II y a lieu de s'occuper surtout des forces et à l'assimilation des races'. In Beksics, La Question Roumanie et la Lutte des races en Orient, Paris, 1895, p. 173.
- !All these cultural and political programmes were largely, at least in the early nineteenth century, identified with scholarly interests in linguistic and etymologies. Panslavism, Daco-Romanism, Turanism and, not least, Aryanism, were initially linguistic projects. For a good discussion of Aryanism, for example, as a linguistic enterprise within the emerging Victorian anthropology and of the role of Friedrich Max Müller, the comparative philologist who propagated the notion of the 'Aryans', see George W. Stocking, Victorian Anthropology, New York and London, 1987, especially pp. 56-62.
- !For a very good analysis, see Horváth Zoltán, Magyar Szazadfirrdulo. A masodik reformnemzedek (1896-1914), Budapest, 1961; Péter Hanak, The Garden and the Workshop. Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest, Budapest, 1988.
- !Qn Beothy, see Gabor Zsigmond, Beöthy Leo, Budapest, 1974.
- !On Pulszky, see Laszlo Kupa, Pulszky Agost Mcselete, Budapest, 1996.
- Pok , Attila . 1989 . "The social function of sociology in fin-de-siècle Budapest' ” . In Hungary and European Civilization Edited by: Ranki , György and Pok , Attila . 265 – 83 . Budapest
- !This group was organised around the journal Huszadik Szazad, founded in 1900. Interestingly, the father of evolutionary sociology himself, Herbert Spencer, blessed the first issue. Among those studies directly discussing aie impact of evolution and Darwinism, worth mentioning are: Somlo Bodog, 'Spencer Herbert', Huszadik Szazad, I, I (January-June 1900), pp. 405-14; Méray-Horváth Károly, 'A koalicio korisméje', Huszadik Szazad, VE, XIII (January-June 1906), pp. 181-207; or Jászi Oszkár, Oarwin es a szociologia', Huszadik Szazad, I (1909), pp. 281-83.
- !As Attila Pók argued: 'they thought that however serious the illnesses (the morbus latifundii, the problems of national minorities, emigration and clerical reaction) which gnawed at the body of Hungarian society, the organisation of society based on knowledge of society's nature, i.e. making the natural evolution of social forces possible, would necessarily overcome it'. In Pók, The social function', p. 269.
- !For the impact of Huszadik Szazad on Hungarian society, see Gyula Merci, Polgari radikalismus Magyarorszagon, 1900-1914, Budapest, 1947; and Zoltan Horváth, Irodalom es történelem, Budapest, 1968.
- Hanak , Peter , ed. 1988 . One Thousand Years. A Concise History of Hungary 148 Budapest Creating a strong independent Hungarian state was the main, if implicit, political ambition of many fin-de-siècle Hungarian politicians, including István Tisza, Gyula Andrássy or Albert Apponyi. The idea of an empire that would finally arise when the multinational Hungarian state had become a Magyar nation state emerged particularly strongly after 1900 when it seemed that Hungary needed no more to rely on Austria for survival. As Peter Hanak sagaciously remarked: 'Fin-de-siecle nationalism used the Millennium to popularise Hungarian state power and in stone, iron and words, to perpetuate the illusion of a Hungarian Empire'. In
- !'Ungarn ist den politische Moden weniger unterworfen als irgend ein anderes Land, denn die Erhaltung der Race ist der herrschende Gedanke der Nation.' In Timeleon (Gusztav Beksics), Die neueste politische mode, Budapest, 1884, p. 1.
- Nemoianu , Virgil . 1989 . “ Un Neconservateur Jeffersonine dans la Vienne de Fin De Siècle: Aurel C. Popovici' ” . In Le Génie de l'Autriche-Hongrie (Etat, Société, Culture) Edited by: Molnar , Miklás and Reszler , André . 31 – 42 . Paris
- Darwin , Charles . 1959 . The Origin of Species, edited by Morse Peckham 162 Philadelphia According to Darwin: 'When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply'. In
- !As Koch suggested: 'One need not have read any of these authors in order to be ideologically influenced by them. Secondary works, periodicals and newspapers frequently manage to simplify the essential core of an elaborate thesis, and at a popular level spread the content of many ideologies. This process of popularisation of systems of ideas can at a particular point in time become socially and therefore by implication politically significant'. In Koch, 'Social Darwinism', pp. 320-21.
- !The Origin of Species was translated into French in 1862, and again in 1873 and 1876. In France, the influence of Darwin was chiefly powerful in literature. See Linda Clark, Social Darwinism in France, La Rochelle, 1984. In Germany, outside the natural science and anthropology, the influence of Darwin created new theories of society, of race, and of course of politics. See Kelly, The Descent of Darwin.
- Weindling . “ 'Dissecting German Social Darwinism' ” . 624
- !the classical Henri de Boulainvilliers, Essai sur la noblesse de France, Paris, 1735.
- !Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Die Grundlagen des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, München, 1899.
- Danilevsky , N. 1830 . Russland und Europa Stuttgart
- !Apart from the emerging discipline of sociology, Hungarian ethnography too has incorporated various Western conceptions of race and racial thinking. See, for example, Paul (Pal) Hunfalvy, Ethnographie von Ungarn, Budapest, 1877. This is one of the first "scientific" attempts to investigate trie "racial" diversity of multinational Hungary. Unfortunately, I have no space here to discuss the influence of racial thinking on ethnography. For a good contextualisation of Hungarian ethnography at the end of the nineteenth century, see Tamas Hofer, The "Hungarian Soul" and the "Historical Layers of National Heritage": conceptualizations of the Hungarian Folk Culture, 1880-1944', in Ivo Banac and Katherine Verdery, eds., National Character and National Ideology in Interwar Eastern Europe, New Haven, 1995, pp. 65-81.
- Szabo , Miklos . 1989 . “ Uj vonasok a szazadfordulo magyar politikai gondolkodásaban' ” . In Politikai kultura Magyarorszagon, 1896-1986 Edited by: Szabo , Miklos . 109 – 76 . Budapest
- Jasa , Oscar . 1929 . The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy 275 – 76 . Chicago
- !Ibid., p. 306.
- !The best discussion of the liberal nationalism of the Reform Period remains George Barany, Stephen Széchenyi and the Awakening of Hungarian Nationalism, 1791-1841, Princeton, 1968.
- !Aurel C. Popovici, Die Vereinigten Staaten von Groß-österreich. Politische Studien zur Läsung der nationalen Fragen und Staatsrechtlichen Krisen in Österreich-Ungarn, Leipzig, 1906. (The following quotations are from Stat si nafiune. Statele Unite ale Austriei-Mari, Bucuresti, 1906. All translations from Romanian are mine, unless otherwise indicated.) See, also, Nationalism sau démocratie. O criticä a civilizatiunii moderne, Bucuresti, 1910.
- Knox , Robert . 1850 . The Races of Men: A Fragment 6 London
- !Popovici, Stat si natiune, pp. 77-78.
- Popovici . Nationalism sau démocratie 429
- !Ibid., p. 429.
- !Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838-1909), an Austrian sociologist and jurist, was professor of sociology at the University of Graz and Vienna. His most important books are Des Recht der Nationalitäten und Sprachen in Österreich-Ungarn (1879); Der Rassenkampf. Soziologische Untersuchungen (1883); and Geschichte der Staatsfheorien (1905).
- !Bernhard Zebrowski, Ludwig Gumplowicz: Eine Bio-Bibliographie, Berlin, 1926. For a good introduction to Gumplowicz's life and sociological system see the introduction of Irving L. Horowitz to Ludwig Gumplowicz, Outlines of Sociology, Irving L. Horowitz, ed., New York, 1963, especially pp. 12-48.
- 1961 . A History of Man's Ideas about Life with His Fellows to Times when His Study of Ote Past is Linked with that of the Present for UK Sake of the Future), , 3rd edition Vol. 2 , 713 – 16 . New York Howard Decker and Harry Elmer Barnes (with the assistance of Emile Benoft-Smullyan and others), Social Thought from Lore to Science
- Aho , James Alfred . 1975 . German Realpolitikand American Sociology. An Inquiry into the Sources and Political Significance of the Sociology of Conflict 25 – 60 . London
- Popovici . Nationalism or Democracy 384 At some point, Popovici openly expressed his admiration for Gumplowicz, whom he considered 'maybe the only sociologist of real value'. In
- !The main argument of this thesis is developed in Ludwig Gumplowicz, Der Rassenkampf. Sociologische Untersuchungen, Innsbruck, 1883.
- Gumplowicz . Outlines of Sociology 227
- !Popovici, Nationalism sau démocratie, pp. 215-16.
- !According to Keith Hitchins: Topovici contended that once a people had become conscious of itself, as the Rumanians had, it took on all the attributes of a living organism and was endowed by nature with the inherent right of survival and freedom to develop. But if a nation were to grow and prosper, he argued, it must, like any organism, have a suitable environment; it required living space, and, eventually, all its parts would have to function as a unit A people conscious of itself must, he concluded, inevitably establish an independent (or autonomous) state of its own and, if it chose, unite with other states on basis of nationality. He characterised these two tendencies-the establishment of national states and the political union of "dismembered" nations-which, moreover, seemed to him to be the hallmarks of contemporary Europe, as natural laws and, hence, he viewed their fulfilment as inevitable'. In Hitchins, The Rumanian question in Hungary', p. 286.
- !Ibid., pp. 285-86.
- !G. Vacher de Lapouge, Les Sélections sociales, Paris, 1896; and L'Aryen: son role social, Paris, 1899. The présent citation is from Guy Thuillier, Un anarchiste positive: Georges Vacher de Lapouge', in Pierre Guiral & Emile Temime, eds, L'Idée de race dans la pensée politique francaise contemporaine, Paris, 1977, p. 64. For a good description of Lapouge's Darwinism see MJ. Hawkins, The struggle for existence in 19th-century social theory: three case studies', History of Ute Human Sciences, 8, 3 (1995), pp. 47-67.
- Popovici . Nationalism sau democratie 54
- !Ibid., p. 428.
- !Jean-Christophe Coffin, 'Le Theme de la Dégénérescence de la race autour de 1860, History of European Ideas, 15, 4-6 (1992), pp. 727-32; and Sean Quintan, The racial imagery of degeneration and depopulation: Georges Vacher de Lapouge and "anthroposociology" in fin-de-siècle France', History of European Ideas, 24, 6 (1998), pp. 393-413.
- !Nancy Stepan, Biological degeneration: races and proper places', in J. Edward Chamberlain & Sander L. Oilman, eds, Degeneration. The Dark Side of Progress, New York, 1985, p. 97.
- de Gobineau , Arthur . 1970 . Selected Political Writings 59 London
- Gilroy , Paul . 2000 . Between Camps. Nations, Cultures and the Allure of Race 9 London
- Popovici . Stat si natiune 75
- !Ibid., p. 74.
- !'Constatarea ce se face in ziua de azi, si eu o cred intemeiatä, este aceasta: pe cît e de primejdioasä corcirea sistematicä a singelui unui neam eu rasele absolut heterogene, pe atît e de periculos si un purism exagérát. Fiecare rasa are nevaie, din cînd în cînd, de o tmprospätare a sîngelui sau, de unfel de infuziune de singe nou, în proporjii potrivite. Un asemenea amestec discret eu o rasa apropriatä e chiar o conditie de sänätate si prosperitate naponalä; e o altoire, o înnobilire.' [The observation made nowadays, and I believe it is founded, is that: the systematic mixing of the blood of a people with heterogeneous races is as dangerous as the exaggerated purism. Each race needs, from time to time, a refreshment of its blood or an infusion of new blood, in measured proportions. Such a discrete mixture with a relative race is even a condition of health and national prosperity; it is ennoblement']. In: Popovici, Nationalism sau democratie, p. 434.
- Popovici . Stat si natiune 76
- !F.F. Broca, Instructions craniologiques et craniométriques de la société d'Anthropologie de Paris, Paris, 1875.
- !G. Vacher de Lapouge, Les Sélections sociale, Paris, 1896.
- !Lapouge, 'Définition de l'Aryen', in Lapouge, L'Aryen, pp. 1-23.
- !Ludwig Weltmann (1871-1907) was a follower of Lapouge, Gumplowicz, and Gobineau and a pupil of Ernst Haeckel. He founded Politisch-Anthropologische Revue, and was a co-founder with Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940), the racial biologist who coined the term Rassenhygiene, of the Archiv für Rassen und Gesselschaftsbiokgie in 1904. Among some of his popular books worth mentioning are Die Germanen in Italien (1905) and Die Germanen in Frankreich (1907).
- Popovici . Nationalism or Democracy 419
- !Ibid., pp. 410-11.
- !A good introduction to this topic is offered by Christine Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race, London, 1971; John Haller, Outcasts From Evolution: Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900, New York, 1971; Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science, 1800-1960, London, 1982; Ivan Hannaford, Race. The History of an Idea in the West, Baltimore, 1996.
- Bhabha , K. 1990 . Nation and Narration 297 London The expression belongs to Homi