1,808
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Race, Sex, and the Neglected Risks for Women and Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa

Pages 67-86 | Published online: 10 Nov 2008

References

  • Abu-Raddad , Laith , Patnaik , Padmaja and Kublin , James . 2006 . “Dual Infection with HIV and Malaria Fuels the Spread of Both Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa.” . Science , 314 ( 8 ) : 1603 – 1606 .
  • Ashforth , Adam . 2002 . “An Epidemic of Witchcraft? The Implications of AIDS for the Post-Apartheid State.” . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 121 – 143 .
  • Beisel , William . 1996 . “Nutrition and Immune Function: Overview.” . Journal of Nutrition , 126 ( 10S ) : 2611S – 2615S .
  • Bentwich , Zvi , Kalinkovich , Alexander and Weisman , Ziva . 1995 . “Immune Activation Is a Dominant Factor in the Pathogenesis of African AIDS.” . Immunology Today , 16 ( 4 ) : 187 – 191 .
  • Billy , John O. G. , Tanfer , Koray , Grady , William R. and Klepinger , Daniel H. 1993 . “The Sexual Behavior of Men in the United States.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 25 ( 2 ) : 52 – 60 .
  • Borkow , Gadi and Bentwich , Zvi . 2002 . “Host Background Immunity and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Protective Vaccines: A Major Consideration for Vaccine Efficacy in Africa and in Developing Countries.” . Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology , 9 ( 3 ) : 505 – 507 .
  • Borkow , Gadi and Bentwich , Zvi . 2006 . “HIV and Helminth Coinfection: Is Deworming Necessary?” . Parasite Immunology , 28 ( 11 ) : 605 – 612 .
  • Burkhalter, Holly. 2003. “Unsafe Health Care and the HIV/AIDS Pandemic.” Testimony before the 108th Cong. 1st sess. on Solutions to the Problem of Health Care Transmission of HIV/AIDS in Africa, July 31. http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/testimony-2003-07-31.html (accessed December 2003, April 2008)
  • Caldwell , John and Caldwell , Pat . 1987 . “The Cultural Context of High Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa.” . Population and Development Review , 13 ( 3 ) : 409 – 437 .
  • Caldwell , John , Caldwell , Pat and Quiggin , Pat . 1989 . “The Social Context of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa.” . Population and Development Review , 15 ( 2 ) : 185 – 234 .
  • Caraël , Michel . 1995 . “Sexual Behaviour,” . In Sexual Behaviour and AIDS in the Developing World , Edited by: Cleland , John and Ferry , Benoît . 75 – 123 . London : Taylor and Francis .
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 1997 . “Chlamydia Trachomatis Genital Infections – United States, 1995.” . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly , 46 ( 9 ) : 193 – 198 .
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . 1999 . STD Morbidity Count , Atlanta : CDC .
  • Chandra , Ranjit . 1997 . “Nutrition and the Immune System: An Introduction.” . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 66 ( 2 ) : 460S – 463S .
  • Chin , James . 2007 . The AIDS Pandemic , Oxford : Radcliffe Publishing Ltd .
  • Cleland , John , Benoît , Ferry and Michel , Caraël . 1995 . “Summary and Conclusions,” . In Sexual Behaviour and AIDS in the Developing World , Edited by: Cleland , John and Ferry , Benoît . 208 – 228 . London : Taylor and Francis .
  • Coetzee , John M. 1988 . White Writing: On the Culture of Letters in South Africa , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
  • Cunningham-Rundles , Susanna . 1998 . “Analytical Methods for Evaluation of Immune Response in Nutrient Intervention.” . Nutrition Reviews , 56 ( 1 ) : S27 – S37 .
  • Delius , Peter and Glaser , Clive . 2002 . “Sexual Socialisation in South Africa: A Historical Perspective.” . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 27 – 54 .
  • Drucker , Ernest , Alcabes , Phillip and Marx , Preston . 2001 . “The Injection Century: Massive Unsterile Injections and the Emergence of Human Pathogens.” . Lancet , 358 ( 9297 ) : 1989 – 1992 .
  • Dubow , Saul . 1995 . Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa , Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
  • Dunkle , Kristin , Jewkes , Rachel , Brown , Heather , Gray , Glenda , McIntyre , James and Harlow , Siobán . 2004 . “Gender-Based Violence, Relationship Power, and Risk of HIV Infection in Women Attending Antenatal Clinics in South Africa.” . Lancet , 363 ( 9419 ) : 1415 – 1421 .
  • Epstein , Helen . 2007 . The Invisible Cure , New York : Farrar, Straus and Giroux .
  • Eugenics Watch. http://www.eugenics-watch.com (accessed December 2004, April 2008)
  • Feldmeier , Hermann , Helling-Giese , Gertrud and Poggensee , Gabriele . 2001 . “Unreliability of PAP Smears to Diagnose Female Genital Schistosomiasis.” . Tropical Medicine and International Health , 6 ( 1 ) : 31 – 33 .
  • Feldmeier , Hermann , Poggensee , Gabriele , Krantz , Irene and Helling-Giese , Gertrud . 1995 . “Female Genital Schistosomiasis.” . Tropical and Geographical Medicine , 47 ( 2 ) : S2 – S15 .
  • Fleming , Douglas , McQuillan , Geraldine , Johnson , Robert , Nahmias , André , Aral , Sevgi , Lee , Francis and Louis , Michael St . 1997 . “Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994.” . New England Journal of Medicine , 337 ( 16 ) : 1105 – 1111 .
  • Ford , Nicholas . 1994 . “Cultural and Developmental Factors Underlying the Global Pattern of the Transmission of HIV/AIDS,” . In Health and Development , Edited by: Phillips , David and Verhasselt , Yola . 83 – 96 . London : Routledge .
  • Forster , Peter . 2001 . “AIDS in Malawi: Contemporary Discourse and Cultural Continuities.” . African Studies , 60 ( 2 ) : 245 – 261 .
  • Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) . 2005 . “Gender-Based Violence and HIV Among Women: Assessing the Evidence.” . Issue Brief No. 3. http://www.amfar.org/cgi-bin/iowa/programs/publicp/record.html?record=28 (accessed December 2005)
  • Friis , Henrik and Michaelsen , Kim . 1998 . “Micronutrients and HIV Infection: A Review.” . European Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 52 ( 3 ) : 157 – 163 .
  • Gilman , Sander . 1985 . Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness , Ithaca : Cornell University Press .
  • Gilman , Sander . 1990 . “‘I'm Down on Whores’: Race and Gender in Victorian London,” . In Anatomy of Racism , Edited by: Goldberg , David . 146 – 170 . Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
  • Gilman , Sander . 1992 . “Black Bodies, White Bodies: Toward an Iconography of Female Sexuality in Late Nineteenth-Century Art, Medicine and Literature,” . In ‘Race’, Culture and Difference , Edited by: Donald , James and Rattansi , Ali . 171 – 197 . London : Sage .
  • Gisselquist , David , J. Potterat , John and Brody , Stuart . 2004 . “HIV Transmission During Paediatric Health Care in Sub-Saharan Africa: Risks and Evidence.” . South African Medical Journal , 94 ( 2 ) : 109 – 116 .
  • Gisselquist , David , Potterat , John J , Brody , Stuart and Vachon , François . 2003 . “Let It Be Sexual: How Health Care Transmission of AIDS in Africa Was Ignored.” . International Journal of STD and AIDS , 14 ( 3 ) : 148 – 161 .
  • Gisselquist , David , Potterat , John J and Salerno , Lilian . 2007 . “Injured and Insulted: Women in Africa Suffer from Incomplete Messages about HIV Risks.” . Horn of Africa Journal of AIDS , 4 ( 1 ) : 15 – 18 . http://www.peoplepeople.org/index.php?P=47 (accessed December 2007)
  • Gopinath , Ramya , Ostrowski , Mario , Justement , Shawn , Fauci , Anthony and Nutman , Thomas . 2000 . “Filarial Infections Increase Susceptibility to Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells In Vitro.” . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 182 ( 6 ) : 1804 – 1808 .
  • Gould , Stephen J. 1981 . The Mismeasure of Man , New York : W. W. Norton .
  • Gregson , Simon , Garnett , Geoffrey P. , Nyamukapa , Constance A. , Hallett , Timothy B. , Lewis , James J. C. , Mason , Peter R. , Chandiwana , Stephen K. and Anderson , Roy M. 2006 . “HIV Decline Associated with Behavior Change in Eastern Zimbabwe.” . Science , 311 ( 5761 ) : 664 – 666 .
  • Grinstead , Olga , Faigeles , Bonnie , Binson , Diane and Eversley , Rani . 1993 . “Sexual Risk for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection among Women in High-Risk Cities.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 25 ( 6 ) : 252 – 256 . 277
  • Grosskurth , Heiner , Mosha , Frank , Todd , James , Mwijarubi , Ezra , Klokke , Arnoud , Senkoro , Kesheni , Mayaud , Phillippe , Changalucha , John , Nicoll , Angus , ka-Gina , Gina , Newell , James , Mugeye , Kokugonza , Mabey , David and Hayes , Richard . 1995 . “Impact of Improved Treatment of Sexually Transmitted Diseases on HIV Infection in Rural Tanzania: Randomised Controlled Trial.” . Lancet , 346 ( 8974 ) : 530 – 536 .
  • Harms , Gundel and Feldmeier , Hermann . 2002 . “Review: HIV Infection and Tropical Parasitic Diseases – Deleterious Interactions in Both Directions?” . Tropical Medicine and International Health , 7 ( 6 ) : 479 – 488 .
  • Hedberg , Katrina , Shaffer , Nathan , Davachi , Farzin , Hightower , Allen , Lyamba , Bongo , Mbudi Paluku , Kalenga , Nguyen-Dinh , Phuc and Breman , Joel . 1993 . “Plasmodium Falciparum-Associated Anemia in Children at a Large Urban Hospital in Zaire.” . American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 48 ( 3 ) : 365 – 371 .
  • Hlaing , Tommy . 1993 . “Ascariasis and Childhood Malnutrition.” . Parasitology , 107 : S125 – S136 .
  • Hoffman , Irving , Jere , Charles , Taylor , Terrie , Munthali , Peter , Dyer , John , Wirima , Jack , Rogerson , Stephen , Kumwenda , Newton , Eron , Joe , Fiscus , Susan , Chakraborty , Hrishitesh , Taha , Taha , Cohen , Myron and Molyneux , Malcolm . 1999 . “The Effect of Plasmodium Falciparum Malaria on HIV-1 RNA Blood Plasma Concentration.” . AIDS , 13 ( 4 ) : 487 – 494 .
  • Jacobson , Maria . 2002 . “Why Do Men Buy Sex? Interview with Professor Sven-Axel Mansson.” . NIKK magasin , 1 : 22 – 25 . [Nordic Institute for Women's Studies and Gender Research]
  • John , Grace , Nduati , Ruth , Mbori-Ngacha , Dorothy , Overbaugh , Julie , Welch , M , Richardson , Barbara , Ndinya-Achola , Jeckoniah , Bwayo , Job , Krieger , J. , Onyango , F. and Kreiss , Joan . 1997 . “Genital Shedding of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 DNA during Pregnancy: Association with Immunosuppression, Abnormal Cervical or Vaginal Discharge, and Severe Vitamin A Deficiency.” . Journal of Infectious Diseases , 175 : 57 – 62 .
  • Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) . 1999 . Fact Sheet on Differences in HIV Spread in African Cities , Geneva : UNAIDS . http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub03/lusaka99_en.html (accessed January 2001, April 2008)
  • Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) . 2004 . Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic , Geneva : United Nations .
  • Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) . 2007 . AIDS Epidemic Update 2007 , Geneva : United Nations .
  • Keeler , Laura and Jyrkinen , Marjut . 2002 . “Racism in the Sex Trade in Finland.” . NIKK magasin , 1 : 33 – 36 . [Nordic Institute for Women's Studies and Gender Research]
  • Kjetland , Eyrun , Ndhlovu , Patricia , Gomo , Exenevia , Mduluzu , Takafira , Midzi , Nicholas , Gwanzura , Lovemore , Mason , Peter , Sandvik , Leiv , Friis , Henrik and Gundersen , Svein . 2006 . “Association between Genital Schistosomiasis and HIV in Rural Zimbabwean Women.” . AIDS , 20 ( 4 ) : 593 – 600 .
  • Kost , Kathryn , Jacqueline , E. and Forrest , Darroch . 1992 . “American Women's Sexual Behavior and Exposure to Risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 24 ( 6 ) : 244 – 254 .
  • MacDonald , N. E. , Wells , G. A , Fisher , W. A , Warren , W. K , King , M. A , Doherty , J. A and Bowie , W. R . 1990 . “High-Risk STD/HIV Behavior among College Students.” . Journal of the American Medical Association , 263 ( 23 ) : 3155 – 3159 .
  • Marble , Michelle and Key , Keith . 1995 . “Clinical Facets of a Disease Neglected Too Long.” . AIDS Weekly Plus , August 7 : 16 – 19 .
  • Miguel , Edward A. and Michael , Kremer . 2001 . “Worms: Education and Health Expenditures in Kenya.” Working Paper 8481. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) ” . Cambridge : MA .
  • Montresor , Antonio , Ramsan , Mahdi , Chwaya , Hababu , Arneir , Haji , Foum , Ali , Albonico , Marco , Gvorkos , Theresa and Savioli , Lorenzo . 2001 . “Extending Anthelminthic Coverage to Non-Enrolled School-Age Children Using a Simple and Low-Cost Method.” . Tropical Medicine and International Health , 6 ( 7 ) : 535 – 537 .
  • Mosunjac , Mario , Tadros , Tamer , Beach , Scott and Majmudar , Bhairav . 2003 . “Cervical Schistosomiasis, Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): a Dangerous Coexistence or Coincidence?” . Gynecologic Oncolgy , 90 ( 1 ) : 211 – 214 .
  • Nimmagadda , Ajani , O'Brien , William and Goetz , Matthew . 1998 . “The Significance of Vitamin A and Carotenoid Status in Persons Infected by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus.” . Clinical Infectious Diseases , 26 ( 3 ) : 711 – 718 .
  • Oberhelman , Richard , Guerrero , Efraim , Fernandez , Marta , Silio , Margarita , Mercado , Doris , Comiskey , Nora , Ihenacho , Gertrude and Mera , Robertino . 1998 . “Correlations between Intestinal Parasitosis, Physical Growth, and Psychomotor Development among Infants and Children from Rural Nicaragua.” . American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene , 58 ( 4 ) : 470 – 475 .
  • Partnership for Parasite Control (PPC) . 2002 . “Rome Meeting Notes, 2002.” . http://www.coregroup.org/initiatives/Wormbusters Rome Meeting 4-02.pdf (accessed December 2002, April 2008)
  • Quinn , Thomas , Wawer , Maria , Sewankambo , Nelson , Serwadda , David , Li , Xianbin , Wabwire-Mangen , Fred , Meehan , Mary , Lutalo , Thomas and Gray , Ronald . 2000 . “Viral Load and Heterosexual Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1.” . New England Journal of Medicine , 342 ( 13 ) : 921 – 929 .
  • Reinisch , June M. , Sanders , Stephanie A. , Hill , Craig A. and Ziemba-Davis , Mary . 1992 . “High-Risk Sexual Behavior among Heterosexual Undergraduates at a Midwestern University.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 24 ( 3 ) : 116 – 121 . 145
  • Rowland-Jones , Sarah and Lohman , Barbara . 2002 . “Interactions Between Malaria and HIV Infection – an Emerging Public Health Problem?” . Microbes and Infection , 4 ( 12 ) : 1265 – 1270 .
  • Rushing , William . 1995 . The AIDS Epidemic: Social Dimensions of an Infectious Disease , Boulder : Westview .
  • Scrimshaw , Nevin and Paul SanGiovanni , John . 1997 . “Synergism of Nutrition, Infection, and Immunity: an Overview.” . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 66 ( 2 ) : 464S – 477S .
  • Semba , Richard . 1998 . “The Role of Vitamin A and Related Retinoids in Immune Function.” . Nutrition Reviews , 56 ( 1 ) : S38 – S48 .
  • Semba , Richard , Miotti , Padio , Chiphangwi , John , Saah , Alfred , Canner , Joseph , Dallabetta , Gina and Hoover , Donald . 1994 . “Maternal Vitamin A Deficiency and Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1.” . Lancet , 343 ( 8913 ) : 1593 – 1597 .
  • Singh , Susheela and Darroch , Jacqueline E. 1999 . “Trends in Sexual Activity among Adolescent American Women: 1982–1995.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 31 ( 5 ) : 212 – 219 .
  • Singh , Susheela , Wulf , Deirdre , Samara , Renee and Cuca , Yvette . 2000 . “Gender Differences in the Timing of First Intercourse: Data from 14 Countries.” . International Family Planning Perspectives , 26 ( 1 ) : 21 – 28 . 43
  • Smith , Tom W. 1991 . “Adult Sexual Behavior in 1989: Number of Partners, Frequency of Intercourse and Risk of AIDS.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 23 ( 3 ) : 102 – 107 .
  • Sommer , Alfred , West , Keith , Olson , James and Catharine Ross , A . 1996 . Vitamin A Deficiency: Health, Survival, and Vision , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Spanger , Marlene . 2002 . “Between Suppression and Independence: Transnational Prostitution of Black Women in Denmark.” . NIKK magasin , 1 : 18 – 21 . [Nordic Institute for Women's Studies and Gender Research]
  • Stepan , Nancy Leys . 1982 . The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain 1800–1960 , Hamden : Archon Books .
  • Stepan , Nancy Leys . 1990 . “Race and Gender: The Role of Analogy in Science,” . In Anatomy of Racism , Edited by: Goldberg , David . 38 – 57 . Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
  • Stephenson , Mary L. 1993 . “The Impact of Schistosomiasis on Human Nutrition.” . Parasitology , 107 : S107 – S123 .
  • Stillwaggon , Eileen . 2003 . “Racial Metaphors: Interpreting Sex and AIDS in Africa.” . Development and Change , 34 ( 5 ) : 809 – 832 .
  • Stillwaggon , Eileen . 2006 . AIDS and the Ecology of Poverty , New York : Oxford University Press .
  • Stoltzfus , Rebecca , Albonico , Marco , Chwaya , Hababu , Tielsch , James , Schulze , Kurt-Jurgen and Savioli , Lorenzo . 1998 . “Effects of the Zanzibar School-Based Deworming Program on Iron Status of Children.” . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 68 ( 1 ) : 179 – 186 .
  • Storey , David M. 1993 . “Filariasis: Nutritional Interactions in Human and Animal Hosts.” . Parasitology , 107 : S147 – S158 .
  • Turner , Russell . 1993 . “Landmark French and British Studies Examine Sexual Behavior, Including Multiple Partners, Homosexuality.” . Family Planning Perspectives , 25 ( 2 ) : 91 – 92 .
  • United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) . 1999 . AIDS Update 1999 , New York : UNFPA .
  • Wawer , Maria , Sewankambo , Nelson , Serwadda , David , Quinn , Thomas , Paxton , Lynn , Kiwanuka , Noah , Wabwire-Mangen , Fred , Li , Chuanjun , Lutalo , Thomas , Nalugoda , Fred , Gaydos , Charlotte , Moulton , Lawrence , Meehan , Mary , Ahmed , Saifuddin and Gray , Ronald . 1999 . “Control of Sexually Transmitted Diseases for AIDS Prevention in Uganda: A Randomised Community Trial.” . Lancet , 353 ( 9152 ) : 525 – 535 .
  • Webster , Linda , Greenspan , Joel , Nakashima , Allyn and Johnson , Robert . 1993 . “An Evaluation of Surveillance for Chlamydia Trachomatis Infections in the United States, 1987–1991.” . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly , 42 ( SS-3 ) : 21 – 27 .
  • Wellings , Kaye , Collumbien , Martine , Slaymaker , Emma , Singh , Susheela , Hodges , Zoë , Patel , Dhaval and Bajos , Nathalie . 2006 . “Sexual Behaviour in Context: a Global Perspective.” . Lancet , 368 ( 9548 ) : 1706 – 1728 .
  • Whitworth , James , Morgan , Dilys , Quigley , Maria , Smith , Ashley , Mayanja , Billy , Eotu , Henry , Omoding , Nicholas , Okongo , Martin , Malamba , Samuel and Ojwiya , Amato . 2000 . “Effect of HIV-1 and Increasing Immunosuppression on Malaria Parasitaemia and Clinical Episodes in Adults in Rural Uganda: A Cohort Study.” . Lancet , 356 ( 9235 ) : 1051 – 1056 .
  • Woodward , Bill . 1998 . “Protein, Calories, and Immune Defenses.” . Nutrition Reviews , 56 ( 1 ) : S84 – S92 .
  • World Bank . 1997 . Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a Global Epidemic , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • World Bank . 2003 . “School Deworming At a Glance.” . http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTHEALTHNUTRITIONANDPOPULATION/EXTPHAAG/0,,contentMDK:20785786∼menuPK:1314819∼pagePK:64229817∼piPK:64229743∼theSitePK:672263,00.html (accessed January 2004, April 2008)
  • World Health Organization (WHO) . 2003 . “Unsafe Injection Practices: A Plague of Many Health Care Systems.” . http://www.who.int/injection_safety/about/resources/BackInfoUnsafe/en/ (accessed January 2004)
  • World Health Organization (WHO) . 2004a . http://www.who.int/tdr/diseases/malaria/diseaseinfo.htm (accessed December 2004, April 2008)
  • World Health Organization (WHO) . 2004b . http://www.who.int/tdr/diseases/schisto/diseaseinfo.htm (accessed December 2004, April 2008)
  • World Health Organization (WHO) . 2005 . Deworming for Health and Development , Geneva : WHO . http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/WHO_CDS_CPE_PVC_2005.14.pdf (accessed December 2005, April 2008)

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.