Sorting the Gender Earnings Gap: Heterogeneity in the South African Labor Market

REFERENCES

• Ahituv, Avner and Robert I. Lerman. 2007. “How Do Marital Status, Work Effort and Wage Rates Interact?” Demography 44(3): 623–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allanson, Paul, Jonathan P. Atkins, and Timothy Hinks. 2000. “A Multilateral Decomposition of Racial Wage Differentials in the 1994 South African Labour Market.” Journal of Development Studies 37(1): 93–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angrist, Joshua D. and Jörn-Steffen Pischke. 2008. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bhorat, Haroon and Sumayya Goga. 2013. “The Gender Wage Gap in Post-Apartheid South Africa: A Re-Examination.” Journal of African Economies 22(2): 1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Bhorat, Haroon, Ravi Kanbur, and Natasha Mayet. 2013. “The Impact of Sectoral Minimum Wage Laws on Employment, Wages, and Hours of Work in South Africa.” IZA Journal of Labor & Development 2: Article 1.
   Google Scholar
• Blau, Francine D. and Lawrence M. Kahn. 2017. “The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends and Explanations.” Journal of Economic Literature 55(3): 789–865.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blau, Francine D. and Anne E. Winkler. 2018. The Economics of Women, Men and Work. 8th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blinder, Alan S. 1973. “Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Estimates.” The Journal of Human Resources 8(4): 436–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casale, Daniela. 2004. “What has the Feminisation of the Labour Market ‘Bought’ Women in South Africa? Trends in Labour Force Participation, Employment and Earnings, 1995–2001.” Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics 15(3-4): 251–75.
   Google Scholar
• Casale, Daniela and Dorrit Posel. 2010a. “Investigating the Well-Being of Rural Women in South Africa.” Agenda (Durban, South Africa) 84: 44–50.
   Google Scholar
• Casale, Daniela and Dorrit Posel. 2010b. “The Male Marital Earnings Premium in the Context of Bride Wealth Payments: Evidence from South Africa.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 58(2): 211–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casale, Daniela and Dorrit Posel. 2011. “Unions and the Gender Wage Gap in South Africa.” Journal of African Economies 20(1): 27–59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casale, Daniela, Dorrit Posel, and Jacqueline Mosomi. 2021. “Gender and the Economy in South Africa.” In The Oxford Handbook of the South African Economy, edited by Fiona Tregenna, Imraan Valodia, and Arkebe Oqubay, 735–56. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, Shuowen, Victor Chernozhukov, Ivan Fernandez-Val, and Ye Luo. 2019. “Sorted Effects: Sorted Causal Effects in R.” arXiv: 1909.00836 [econ.EM].
   Google Scholar
• Chernozhukov, Victor, Ivan Fernandez-Val, and Ye Luo. 2018. “The Sorted Effects Method: Discovering Heterogeneous Effects Beyond Their Averages.” Econometrica 86(6): 1911–38.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cock, Jacklyn. 1980. Maids and Madams: A Study in the Politics of Exploitation. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
   Google Scholar
• DiNardo, John, Nicole M. Fortin, and Thomas Lemieux. 1996. “Labor Market Institutions and the Distribution of Wages, 1973-1992: A Semiparametric Approach.” Econometrica 64(5): 1001–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garenne, Michel, Stephen Tollman, Kathleen Kahn, Terri Collins, and Shirley Ngwenya. 2001. “Understanding Marital and Premarital Fertility in Rural South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 27(2): 277–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimshaw, Damian and Jill Rubery. 2015. “The Motherhood Pay Gap: A Review of the Issues, Theory and International Evidence.” Conditions of Work and Employment Series, No. 57. Geneva: International Labor Office.
   Google Scholar
• Grün, Carola. 2004. “Direct and Indirect Gender Discrimination in the South African Labour Market.” International Journal of Manpower 25(3/4): 321–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatch, Michelle and Dorrit Posel. 2018. “Who Cares for Children? A Quantitative Study of Childcare in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 35(2): 267–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinks, Timothy. 2002. “Gender Wage Differentials and Discrimination in the New South Africa.” Applied Economics 34(16): 2043–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, Mark. 2010. Love in the Time of AIDS. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kerr, Andrew, David Lam, and Martin Wittenberg. 2019. “Post-Apartheid Labour Market Series 1993–2019 [dataset].” Version 3.3. DataFirst, Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Kroczek, Martin and Philipp Kugler. 2022. “Heterogeneous Effects of Monetary and Non-monetary Job Characteristics on Job Attractiveness in Nursing.” SSRN 4233437. Social Science Research Network.
   Google Scholar
• Leibbrandt, Murray, Ingrid Woolard, Arden Finn, and Jonathan Argent. 2010. “Trends in the South African Income Distribution and Poverty Since the Fall of Apartheid.” OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 101, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
   Google Scholar
• Maconachie, Moira. 1989. “Looking for Patterns of Women's Employment and Educational Achievements in the 1985 Census.” Agenda (Durban, South Africa) 5: 80–92.
   Google Scholar
• Melly, Blaise. 2005. “Decomposition of Differences in Distribution Using Quantile Regression.” Labour Economics 12(4): 577–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mincer, Jacob A. 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. Cambridge, MA: NBER.
   Google Scholar
• Mosomi, Jacqueline. 2018. “Distributional Changes in the Gender Wage Gap in the Post-Apartheid South African Labour Market.” PhD thesis, University of Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Mosomi, Jacqueline. 2019a. “An Empirical Analysis of Trends in Female Labour Force Participation and the Gender Wage Gap in South Africa.” Agenda (Durban, South Africa) 33(4): 29–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosomi, Jacqueline. 2019b. “Distributional Changes in the Gender Wage Gap in the Post-Apartheid South African Labour Market.” UNU-WIDER Working Paper 2019/17, UNU-WIDER.
   Google Scholar
• Muller, Colette. 2009. “Trends in the Gender Wage Gap and Gender Discrimination Among Part-Time and Fulltime Workers in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Working Paper 124. Durban, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal.
   Google Scholar
• Ntuli, Miracle. 2007. “Exploring Gender Wage Discrimination in South Africa, 1995–2004: A Quantile Regression Approach.” IPC Working Paper Series No. 56. Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan.
   Google Scholar
• Oaxaca, Ronald. 1973. “Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets.” International Economic Review 14(3): 693–709.
   Google Scholar
• Paul, Mark, Khaing Zaw, and William Darity. 2022. “Returns in the Labor Market: A Nuanced View of Penalties at the Intersection of Race and Gender in the US.” Feminist Economics 28(2): 1–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit and Daniela Casale. 2013. “The Relationship Between sex Ratios and Marriage Rates in South Africa.” Applied Economics 45(3): 663–76.
   Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit and Daniela Casale. 2019. “Gender and the Economy in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Changes and Challenges.” Agenda (durban, South Africa) 33(4): 1–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit, Daniela Casale, and Erofili Grapsa. 2016. “Re-estimating Gender Differences in Income in South Africa: The Implications of Equivalence Scales.” Development Southern Africa 33(4): 425–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit, Daniela Casale, and Claire Vermaak. 2014. “Job Search and the Measure of Unemployment.” South African Journal of Economics 82(1): 66–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit and Katharine Hall. 2021. “The Economics of Households in South Africa.” In The Oxford Handbook of the South African Economy, edited by Fiona Tregenna, Imraan Valodia, and Arkebe Oqubay, 800–22. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Posel, Dorrit and Colette Muller. 2008. “Is There Evidence of a Wage Penalty to Female Part-Time Employment in South Africa?” South African Journal of Economics 76(3): 466–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pullabhotla, Hemant K. and Mateus Souza. 2022. “Air Pollution from Agricultural Fires Increases Hypertension Risk.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 115: 102723.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, Gareth and Volker Schoer. 2021. “Gender-Based Segregation in Education, Jobs and Earnings in South Africa.” World Development Perspectives 23: 100348.
   Google Scholar
• Rospabé, Sandrine. 2001. “An Empirical Evaluation of Gender Discrimination in Employment, Occupation Attainment and Wage in South Africa in the Late 1990s.” DPRU/FES Workshop on Labour Markets and Poverty in South Africa, Johannesburg, November.
   Google Scholar
• Shepherd, Debra. 2008. “Post-Apartheid Trends in Gender Discrimination in South Africa: Analysis through Decomposition Techniques.” Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers: 06/08, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Sigle-Rushton, Wendy and Jane Waldfogel. 2007. “Motherhood and Women's Earnings in Anglo-American, Continental European, and Nordic Countries.” Feminist Economics 13(2): 55–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spaull, Nic and Nwabisa Makaluza. 2019. “Girls Do Better: The Pro-Female Gender Gap in Learning Outcomes in South Africa 1995–2018.” Agenda (Durban, South Africa) 33(4): 11–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tijdens, Kea G. 2002. “Gender Roles and Labor Use Strategies: Women’s Part-Time Work in the European Union.” Feminist Economics 8(1): 71–99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Broekhuizen, Hendrik and Nic Spaull. 2017. “The ‘Martha Effect’: The Compounding Female Advantage in South African Higher Education.” Stellenbosch Economic Working Paper 14. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, Cherryl, ed. 1990. Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945. Cape Town: David Philip Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Wittenberg, Martin. 2017. “Wages and Wage Inequality in South Africa 1994–2011: Part 2 – Inequality Measurement and Trends.” South African Journal of Economics 85(2): 298–318.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2022. Inequality in Southern Africa: An Assessment of the South African Customs Union. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
   Google Scholar