Are there reliable changes in memory and executive functions after cognitive behavioural therapy in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder?

References

• Abramovitch, A., Dar, R., Schweiger, A., & Hermesh, H. (2011). Neuropsychological impairments and their association with obsessive-compulsive symptom severity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 26, 364–376. doi:10.1093/arclin/acr022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altman, D. G., & Royston, P. (2006). The cost of dichotomising continuous variables. BMJ, 332, 1080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. E., & Savage, C. R. (2004). Cognitive and neurobiological findings in obsessive–compulsive disorder. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 37–47. doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(03)00107-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andres, S., Lazaro, L., Salamero, M., Boget, T., Penades, R., & Castro-Fornieles, J. (2008). Changes in cognitive dysfunction in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder after treatment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 507–514. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.04.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bannon, S., Gonsalvez, C. J., Croft, R. J., & Boyce, P. M. (2006). Executive functions in obsessive-compulsive disorder: State or trait deficits? The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 1031–1038.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedard, M.-J., Joyal, C. C., Godbout, L., & Chantal, S. (2009). Executive functions and the obsessive-compulsive disorder: On the importance of subclinical symptoms and other concomitant factors. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 24, 585–598. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton, D., Raven, P., Madronal-Luque, R., & Marks, I. M. (2000). Neurological and neuropsychological signs in obsessive compulsive disorder: Interaction with behavioural treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 695–708. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00139-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, T. R., Di Nardo, P. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1994). Anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV (ADIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation/Graywind Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Bucci, P., Galderisi, S., Catapano, F., Di Benedetto, R., Piegari, G., Mucci, A., & Maj M. (2007). Neurocognitive indices of executive hypercontrol in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115, 380–387. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00911.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buhlmann, U., Deckersbach, T., Engelhard, I., Cook, L. M., Rauch, S. L., Kathmann, N., & Savage C. R. (2006). Cognitive retraining for organizational impairment in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 144, 109–116. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.10.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgess, P. W., & Shallice, T. (1997). The Hayling and Brixton tests. Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company.
   Google Scholar
• Cavedini, P., Bassi, T., Zorzi, C., & Bellodi, L. (2004). The advantages of choosing antiobsessive therapy according to decision-making functioning. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24, 628–631. doi:10.1097/01.jcp.0000144889.51072.03
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavedini, P., Zorzi, C., Piccinni, M., Cavallini, M. C., & Bellodi, L. (2010). Executive dysfunctions in obsessive-compulsive patients and unaffected relatives: Searching for a new intermediate phenotype. Biological Psychiatry, 67(12), 1178–1184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain, S. R., Blackwell, A. D., Fineberg, N. A., Robbins, T. W., & Sahakian, B. J. (2005). The neuropsychology of obsessive compulsive disorder: The importance of failures in cognitive and behavioural inhibition as candidate endophenotypic markers. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(3), 399–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain, S. R., Fineberg, N. A., Menzies, L. A., Blackwell, A. D., Bullmore, E. T., Robbins, T. W., & Sahakian, B. J. (2007). Impaired cognitive flexibility and motor inhibition in unaffected first-degree relatives of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(2), 335–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chamberlain, S. R., & Menzies, L. (2009). Endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Rationale, evidence and future potential. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 9(8), 1133–1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culbertson, W. C., & Zillmer, E. A. (2005). Tower of London – Drexel University: Technical manual (2th ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Deckersbach, T., Otto, M. W., Savage, C. R., Baer, L., & Jenike, M. A. (2000). The relationship between semantic organization and memory in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 69(2), 101–107. doi:10.1159/000012373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Geus, F., Denys, D., & Westenberg, H. G. M. (2007). Effects of quetiapine on cognitive functioning in obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(2), 77–84. doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e32801182f7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlap, W. P., Cortina, J. M., Vaslow, J. B., & Burke, M. J. (1996). Meta-analysis of experiments with matched groups or repeated measures design. Psychological Methods, 1, 170–177. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Benjamin, L. S. (1997). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis II personality disorders (SCID-II). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, P. L., & Wells, A. (2005). How effective are cognitive and behavioral treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder? A clinical significance analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1543–1558. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontenelle, L. F., Mendlowicz, M. V., Mattos, P., & Versiani, M. (2006). Neuropsychological findings in obsessive compulsive disorder and its potential implications for treatment. Current Psychiatry Research, 2, 11.
   Google Scholar
• Golden, C. J., & Freshwater, S. M. (2002). Stroop color and word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Wood Dale, IL: Stoelting.
   Google Scholar
• Goldman, H. H., Skodol, A. E., & Lave, T. R. (1992). Revising axis V for DSM-IV: A review of measures of social functioning. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1148–1156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, C., Delgado, P., Heninger, G. R., & Charney, D. S. (1989). The Yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale. II. Validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1012–1016. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110054008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, R. L., Fleischmann, R. L., Hill, C. L., & Charney, D. S. (1989). The Yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale. I. development, use, and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1006–1011. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greisberg, S., & McKay, D. (2003). Neuropsychology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A review and treatment implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(1), 95–117. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00232-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grisham, J. R., Anderson, T. M., Poulton, R., Moffitt, T. E., & Andrews, G. (2009). Childhood neuropsychological deficits associated with adult obsessive-compulsive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195(2), 138–141. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.056812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, M. (1960). A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 23, 56–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaton, R. K. (2008). WCST: Computer version 4 (Res. ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources (PAR), Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Heaton, R. K., Temkin, N., Dikmen, S., Avitable, N., Taylor, M. J., Marcotte, T. D., & Grant, I. (2001). Detecting change: A comparison of three neuropsychological methods, using normal and clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 16(1), 75–91. doi:10.1093/arclin/16.1.75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., Roberts, L. J., Berns, S. B., & McGlinchey, J. B. (1999). Methods for defining and determining the clinical significance of treatment effects: Description, application, and alternatives. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 300–307. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.3.300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jónsson, H., Hougaard, E., & Bennedsen, B. E. (2010). Randomized comparative study of group versus individual cognitive behavioural therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 123(5), 387–397
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, D.-H., Kwon, J. S., Kim, J.-J., Youn, T., Park, H.-J., Kim, M. S., … Lee, M. C. (2003). Brain glucose metabolic changes associated with neuropsychological improvements after 4 months of treatment in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 107, 291–297. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00070.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kathmann, N. (2008). Neuropsychologie der zwangsstörungen [Neuropsychology of obsessive-compulsive disorders]. Göttingen: Hogrefe Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Kathmann, N., Rupertseder, C., Hauke, W., & Zaudig, M. (2005). Implicit sequence learning in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Further support for the fronto-striatal dysfunction model. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 239–244. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.03.045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, M.-S., Park, S.-J., Shin, M. S., & Kwon, J. S. (2002). Neuropsychological profile in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder over a period of 4-month treatment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 36, 257–265. doi:10.1016/S0022-3956(02)00017-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuelz, A. K., Hohagen, F., & Voderholzer, U. (2004). Neuropsychological performance in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A critical review. Biological Psychology, 65, 185–236. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2003.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuelz, A. K., Riemann, D., Halsband, U., Vielhaber, K., Unterrainer, J., Kordon, A., & Voderholzer U. (2006). Neuropsychological impairment in obsessive-compulsive disorder - improvement over the course of cognitive behavioral treatment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 1273–1287. doi:10.1080/13803390500507246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacerda, A. L., Dalgalarrondo, P., Caetano, D., Haas, G. L., Camargo, E. E., & Keshavan, M. S. (2003). Neuropsychological performance and regional cerebral blood flow in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 27, 657–665. doi:10.1016/S0278-5846(03)00076-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (Eds.). (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Menzies, L., Achard, S., Chamberlain, S. R., Fineberg, N., Chen, C. H., del Campo, N., … Bullmore, E. (2007). Neurocognitive endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain, 130(12), 3223–3236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyers, J. E., & Meyers, K. R. (1995). Rey complex figure test and recognition trial. Odessa, TX: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Moritz, S., Kloss, M., Katenkamp, B., Birkner, C., & Hand, I. (1999). Neurocognitive functioning in OCD before and after treatment. CNS Spectrums, 4, 21.
   Google Scholar
• Mortensen, E. L., & Gade, A. (1993). On the relation between demographic variables and neuropsychological test-performance. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 34, 305–317. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1993.tb01127.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller, J., & Roberts, J. E. (2005). Memory and attention in Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: A review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19(1), 1–28. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakao, T., Nakagawa, A., Yoshiura, T., Nakatani, E., Nabeyama, M., Yoshizato, C., & Kanba, S. (2005). Brain activation of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder during neuropsychological and symptom provocation tasks before and after symptom improvement: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 901–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. (2006). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Core interventions in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder. Leicester: The British Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatry
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, H. E., & O'Connell, A. (1978). Dementia: The estimation of premorbid intelligence levels using the new adult reading test. Cortex, 14, 234–244. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(78)80049-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielen, M. M., & Den Boer, J. A. (2003). Neuropsychological performance of OCD patients before and after treatment with fluoxetine: Evidence for persistent cognitive deficits. Psychological Medicine, 33, 917–925. doi:10.1017/S0033291703007682
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen, H., Knudsen, L., & Daugbjerg, O. (1989). Normative data for eight neuropsychological tests based on a Danish sample. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 30(1), 37–45. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1989.tb01066.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Keefe, D. J. (2003). Colloquy: Should familywise alpha be adjusted? Human Communication Research, 29, 431.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olley, A., Malhi, G., & Sachdev, P. (2007). Memory and executive functioning in obsessive–compulsive disorder: A selective review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 104(1–3), 15–23. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.02.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, H. S., Shin, Y. W., Ha, T. H., Shin, M. S., Kim, Y. Y., Lee, Y. H., & Kwon, J. S. (2006). Effect of cognitive training focusing on organizational strategies in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 60, 718–726. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01587.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perneger, T. V. (1998). What's wrong with Bonferroni adjustments. BMJ (Clinical Res. ed.), 316, 1236–1238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajender, G., Bhatia, M. S., Kanwal, K., Malhotra, S., Singh, T. B., & Chaudhary, D. (2011). Study of neurocognitive endophenotypes in drug-naïve obsessive-compulsive disorder patients, their first-degree relatives and healthy controls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(2), 152–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitan, R. M. (1992). Trail making test: Manual for administration and scoring. Tucson, AZ: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory.
   Google Scholar
• Rey, A. (1964). L ‘examen clinique en psychologie [A clinical psychological examination]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
   Google Scholar
• Roh, K. S., Shin, M. S., Kim, M. S., Ha, T. H., Shin, Y. W., Lee, K. J., & Kwon, J. S. (2005). Persistent cognitive dysfunction in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A naturalistic study. Psychiatry Clinical Neuroscience, 59(5), 539–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segalàs, C., Alonso, P., Labad, J., Jaurrieta, N., Real, E., Jimenez, S., & Vallejo, J. (2008). Verbal and nonverbal memory processing in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder: Its relationship to clinical variables. Neuropsychology, 22, 262–272. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.22.2.262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segalàs, C., Alonso, P., Real, E., Garcia, A., Miñambres, A., Labad, J., … Menchón, J. M. (2010). Memory and strategic processing in first-degree relatives of obsessive compulsive patients. Psychological Medicine, 40(12), 2001–2011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests. Administration, norms and commentary (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Temkin, N. R., Heaton, R. K., Grant, I., & Dikmen, S. S. (1999).Detecting significant change in neuropsychological test performance: A comparison of four models. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 357–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandborg, S. K., Hartmann, T. B., Bennedsen, B. E., Pedersen, A. D., Eskildsen, A., Videbech, P. B. H., & Thomsen, P. H. (2012). Do cognitive functions in obsessive-compulsive disorder change after treatment? A systematic review and a double case report. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 66(1), 60–67. doi:10.3109/08039488.2011.626869
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandborg, S. K., Hartmann, T. B., Bennedsen, B. E., Pedersen, A. D., & Thomsen, P. H. (2014). Memory and executive functions in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 27(1), 8–16. doi:10.1097/WNN.0000000000000021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswanath, B., Janardhan Reddy, Y. C., Kumar, K. J., Kandavel, T., & Chandrashekar, C. R. (2009). Cognitive endophenotypes in OCD: A study of unaffected siblings of probands with familial OCD. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 33(4), 610–615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2007). Wechsler adult intelligence scale – III. Denmark: Dansk Psykologisk Forlag.
   Google Scholar
• Wing, J. K., Babor, T., Brugha, T., Burke, J., Cooper, J. E., Giel, R., & Sartorius, N. (1990). SCAN schedules fonr clinical assessment in neuropsychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 589–593. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810180089012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar