The weathering hypothesis and stillbirth: racial disparities across the life span

References

• Alexander, G. R., J. H. Himes, R. B. Kaufman, J. Mor, and M. Kogan. 1996. “A United States National Reference for Fetal Growth.” Obstetrics & Gynecology 87 (2): 163–168. doi:10.1016/0029-7844(95)00386-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alio, Amina P., Alice R. Richman, Heather B. Clayton, Delores F. Jeffers, Deanna J. Wathington, and Hamisu M. Salihu. 2010. “An Ecological Approach to Understanding Black-White Disparities in Perinatal Mortality.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 14 (4): 557–566. doi:10.1007/s10995-009-0495-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, Cindy L., Tara M. Hulsey, and Thomas C. Hulsey. 2005. “The Influence of Race on Fetal Outcome.” American Journal of Perinatology 22 (5): 245–248. doi:10.1055/s-2005-867089.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barfield, W. D. 2011. “Standard Terminology for Fetal, Infant, and Perinatal Deaths.” Pediatrics 128 (1): 177–181. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-1037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dominguez, Tyan Parker. 2008. “Race, Racism, and Racial Disparities in Adverse Birth Outcomes.” Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 51 (2): 360–370. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e31816f28de.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dryfhout, Vicki. 2010. “Racial Disparities in Stillbirths.” In The Impact of Demographics on Health and Health Care: Race, Ethnicity and Other Social Factors, 151–174. Bingley: Emerald.
   Google Scholar
• Flenady, Vicki, Laura Koopmans, Philippa Middleton, J. Frederik Froen, Gordon C. Smith, Kristen Gibbons, Michael Coory, et al. 2011. “Major Risk Factors for Stillbirth in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The Lancet 377 (9774): 1331–1340. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62233-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frøen, J. Frederik, Ingrid K. Friberg, Joy E. Lawn, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Robert C. Pattinson, Emma R. Allanson, Vicki Flenady, et al. 2016. “Stillbirths: Progress and Unfinished Business.” The Lancet 387 (10018): 574–586. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00818-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T. 1992. “The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations.” Ethnicity & Disease 2 (3): 207–221.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T. 1996. “Black/White Differences in the Relationship of Maternal Age to Birthweight: A Population-Based Test of the Weathering Hypothesis.” Social Science & Medicine 42 (4): 589–597. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00159-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronimus, Arline T., Margaret Hicken, Danya Keene, and John Bound. 2006. “‘Weathering’ and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health 96 (5): 826–833. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldenberg, R. L., R. Kirby, and J. F. Culhane. 2004. “Stillbirth: A Review.” The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 16 (2): 79–94. doi:10.1080/14767050400003801 doi: 10.1080/jmf.16.2.79.94
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grimes, D. A., and K. F. Schulz. 2008. “Making Sense of Odds and Odds Ratios.” Obstetrics & Gynecology 111 (2 Pt 1): 423–426. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000297304.32187.5d.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heazell, Alexander E. P., Dimitrios Siassakos, Hannah Blencowe, Christy Burden, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Joanne Cacciatore, Nghia Dang, et al. 2016. “Stillbirths: Economic and Psychosocial Consequences.” The Lancet 387 (10018): 604–616. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00836-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holzman, Claudia, Janet Eyster, Mary Kleyn, Lynne C. Messer, Jay S. Kaufman, Barbara A. Laraia, Patricia O'Campo, Jessica G. Burke, Jennifer Culhane, and Irma T. Elo. 2009. “Maternal Weathering and Risk of Preterm Delivery.” American Journal of Public Health 99 (10): 1864–1871. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.151589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, Ling, Reg Sauve, Nicholas Birkett, Dean Fergusson, and Carl van Walraven. 2008. “Maternal Age and Risk of Stillbirth: A Systematic Review.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 178 (2): 165–172. doi:10.1503/cmaj.070150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawn, Joy E., Hannah Blencowe, Peter Waiswa, Agbessi Amouzou, Colin Mathers, Dan Hogan, Vicki Flenady, et al. 2016. “Stillbirths: Rates, Risk Factors, and Acceleration Towards 2030.” The Lancet 387 (10018): 587–603. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00837-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, Michael C., and Neal Halfon. 2003. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Birth Outcomes: A Life-course Perspective.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 7 (1): 13–30. doi: 10.1023/A:1022537516969
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu, Michael C., Milton Kotelchuck, Vijaya Hogan, Loretta Jones, Kynna Wright, and Neal Halfon. 2010. “Closing the Black-White Gap in Birth Outcomes: A Life-course Approach.” Ethnicity & Disease 20 (1 Suppl 2): S2-62-76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDorman, Marian F. 2011. “Race and Ethnic Disparities in Fetal Mortality, Preterm Birth, and Infant Mortality in the United States: An Overview.” Seminars in Perinatology 35 (4): 200–208. doi: 10.1053/j.semperi.2011.02.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDorman, Marian F., and Elizabeth C. W. Gregory. 2015. “Fetal and Perinatal Mortality: United States, 2013.” National Vital Statistics Reports 64 (8): 1–24.
   Google Scholar
• MacDorman, Marian F., and Sharon Kirmeyer. 2009. “The Challenge of Fetal Mortality.” NCHS Data Brief, no. 16: 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• MacDorman, M. F., S. E. Kirmeyer, and E. C. Wilson. 2012. “Fetal and Perinatal Mortality, United States, 2006.” National Vital Statistics Reports 60 (8): 1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Nabukera, Sarah K., Martha Slay Wingate, John Owen, Hamisu M. Salihu, Shailender Swaminathan, Greg R. Alexander, and Russell S. Kirby. 2009. “Racial Disparities in Perinatal Outcomes and Pregnancy Spacing among Women Delaying Initiation of Childbearing.” Maternal and Child Health Journal 13 (1): 81–89. doi: 10.1007/s10995-008-0330-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reagan, Patricia B., and Pamela J. Salsberry. 2005. “Race and Ethnic Differences in Determinants of Preterm Birth in the USA: Broadening the Social Context.” Social Science & Medicine 60 (10): 2217–2228. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.10.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy, Uma M., Chia-Wen Ko, and Marian Willinger. 2006. “Maternal Age and the Risk of Stillbirth Throughout Pregnancy in the United States.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 195 (3): 764–770. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2006.06.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowland Hogue, Carol J., and Robert M. Silver. 2011. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in United States: Stillbirth Rates: Trends, Risk Factors, and Research Needs.” Seminars in Perinatology 35 (4): 221–233. doi: 10.1053/j.semperi.2011.02.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, Robert M. 2007. “Fetal Death.” Obstetrics & Gynecology 109 (1): 153–167. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000248537.89739.96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparks, P. Johnelle. 2009. “Do Biological, Sociodemographic, and Behavioral Characteristics Explain Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Preterm Births?” Social Science & Medicine 68 (9): 1667–1675. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network Writing, Group. 2011. “Association Between Stillbirth and Risk Factors Known at Pregnancy Confirmation.” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 306 (22). doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1798.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services. “Healthy People 2020.” Accessed September 24.
   Google Scholar
• Willinger, Marian, Chia-Wen Ko, and Uma M. Reddy. 2009. “Racial Disparities in Stillbirth Risk Across Gestation in the United States.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 201 (5): 469.e1–469.e8. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2009.06.057.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar