Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths in the United States: a county-level analysis as of November 2020

References

• Abedi, V., O. Olulana, V. Avula, D. Chaudhary, A. Khan, S. Shahjouei, J. Li, and R. Zand. 2020. “Racial, Economic, and Health Inequality and COVID-19 Infection in the United States.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00833-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen, R. 1995. “Revisiting the Behavioral Model and Access to Medical Care: Does it Matter?” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 36 (1): 1–10. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2137284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arcaya, M. C., A. L. Arcaya, and S. V. Subramanian. 2015. “Inequalities in Health: Definitions, Concepts, and Theories.” Global Health Action 8: 27106–27106. doi:10.3402/gha.v8.27106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babitsch, B., D. Gohl, and T. Von Lengerke. 2012. “Re-revisiting Andersen’s Behavioral Model of Health Services Use: A Systematic Review of Studies from 1998–2011.” GMS Psycho-Social-Medicine 9: Doc11. doi:10.3205/psm000089.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Braveman, P. A., C. Cubbin, S. Egerter, D. R. Williams, and E. Pamuk. 2010. “Socioeconomic Disparities in Health in the United States: What the Patterns Tell Us.” American Journal of Public Health 100 (S1): S186–S196. doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.166082.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. 1992. Ecological Systems Theory. In Six Theories of Child Development: Revised Formulations and Current Issues, edited by R. Vasta, 187—249. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Browning, C., and K. Cagney. 2002. “Neighborhood Structural Disadvantage, Collective Efficacy, and Self-Rated Physical Health in an Urban Setting.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43 (4): 383–399. Accessed November 27, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3090233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Systems Science and Engineering at Johns Hopkins University. 2020. “Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Cases.” https://github.com/CSSEGISandData/COVID-19.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020a, April 26. “Cases of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) in the U.S.” https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/cases-updates/cases-in-us.html.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020b, April 27. “Provisional Death Counts for Coronavirus Disease (Covid-19).” https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/covid19/index.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020c, April 15, 2020. “Testing for COVID-19.” https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/testing.html.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J. T., and N. Krieger. 2020. “Revealing the Unequal Burden of COVID-19 by Income, Race/Ethnicity, and Household Crowding: US County Versus Zip Code Analyses.” Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, Publish Ahead of Print. https://journals.lww.com/jphmp/Fulltext/9000/Revealing_the_Unequal_Burden_of_COVID_19_by.99237.aspx.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, A. K., M. Rai, D. H. Rehkopf, and B. Abrams. 2013. “Educational Attainment and Obesity: A Systematic Review.” Obesity Reviews 14 (12): 989–1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong, E., H. Du, and L. Gardner. 2020. “An Interactive web-Based Dashboard to Track COVID-19 in Real Time.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases, doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30120-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyer, O. 2020. “Covid-19: Black People and Other Minorities are Hardest hit in US.” Bmj 369: m1483. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esch, P., V. Bocquet, C. Pull, S. Couffignal, T. Lehnert, M. Graas, L. Fond-Harmant, and M. Ansseau. 2014. “The Downward Spiral of Mental Disorders and Educational Attainment: A Systematic Review on Early School Leaving.” BMC Psychiatry 14 (1): 237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg, S. 2020. “Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019—COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1–30, 2020.” MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69 (15): 458–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haneuse, S., and S. Bartell. 2011. “Designs for the Combination of Group- and Individual-Level Data.” Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) 22 (3): 382–389. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3182125cff.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health Resources and Services Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services. 2020. “Area Health Resources Files. s.” https://data.hrsa.gov/topics/health-workforce/ahrf.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, T. D., and B. L. Needham. 2006. “Gender-specific Trends in Educational Attainment and Self-Rated Health, 1972–2002.” American Journal of Public Health 96 (7): 1288–1292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jargowsky, P., and N. Tursi. 2015. “Concentrated Disadvantage.” International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.32192-4.
   Google Scholar
• Kawachi, I., N. Daniels, and D. E. Robinson. 2005. “Health Disparities by Race and Class: why Both Matter.” Health Affairs 24 (2): 343–352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lara-Cinisomo, S., Y. Xue, and J. Brooks-Gunn. 2013. “Latino Youth's Internalising Behaviours: Links to Immigrant Status and Neighbourhood Characteristics.” Ethnicity and Health 18 (3): 315–335. doi:10.1080/13557858.2012.734278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manuel, J. I. 2018. “Racial/Ethnic and Gender Disparities in Health Care Use and Access.” Health Services Research 53 (3): 1407–1429. doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marra, C. A., L. D. Lynd, S. S. Harvard, and M. Grubisic. 2011. “Agreement Between Aggregate and Individual-Level Measures of Income and Education: A Comparison Across Three Patient Groups.” BMC Health Services Research 11 (1): 69. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-11-69.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLeod, J. D., J. M. Nonnemaker, and K. T. Call. 2004. “Income Inequality, Race, and Child Well-Being: An Aggregate Analysis in the 50 United States.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45 (3): 249–264. doi:10.1177/002214650404500302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQuillan, G. M., D. Kruszon-Moran, B. J. Kottiri, L. R. Curtin, J. W. Lucas, and R. S. Kington. 2004. “Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Seroprevalence of 6 Infectious Diseases in the United States: Data From NHANES III, 1988–1994.” American Journal of Public Health 94 (11): 1952–1958. doi:10.2105/ajph.94.11.1952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meade, E. 2014. “Overview of Community Characteristics in Areas with Concentrated Poverty.” https://aspe.hhs.gov/report/overview-community-characteristics-areas-concentrated-poverty.
   Google Scholar
• Piantadosi, S., D. P. Byar, and S. B. Green. 1988. “The Ecological Fallacy.” American Journal of Epidemiology 127 (5): 893–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pica, N., and N. M. Bouvier. 2012. “Environmental Factors Affecting the Transmission of Respiratory Viruses.” Current Opinion in Virology 2 (1): 90–95. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, S. C., and S. Kumar. 2014. “Health Inequalities and Infectious Disease Epidemics: A Challenge for Global Health Security.” Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 12 (5): 263–273. doi:10.1089/bsp.2014.0032.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raifman, M. A., and J. R. Raifman. 2020. “Disparities in the Population at Risk of Severe Illness From COVID-19 by Race/Ethnicity and Income.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 59 (1): 137–139. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2020.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, T. N., C. R. Rogers, E. VanSant-Webb, L. Y. Gu, B. Yan, and F. Qeadan. 2020. “Racial Disparities in COVID-19 Mortality Among Essential Workers in the United States.” World Medical & Health Policy 12 (3): 311–327. doi:10.1002/wmh3.358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulte, F., E. Lucas, J. Rau, L. Szabo, and J. Hancock. 2020. “Millions Of Older Americans Live In Counties With No ICU Beds As Pandemic Intensifies.” Kaiser Health News, July 4. https://khn.org/news/as-coronavirus-spreads-widely-millions-of-older-americans-live-in-counties-with-no-icu-beds/.
   Google Scholar
• Selden, T. M., and T. A. Berdahl. 2020. “COVID-19 And Racial/Ethnic Disparities In Health Risk, Employment, And Household Composition.” Health Affairs 39 (9): 1624–1632. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2020.00897.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, L., and G. D. Stevens. 2005. “Vulnerability and Unmet Health Care Needs. The Influence of Multiple Risk Factors.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 20 (2): 148–154. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2005.40136.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StataCorp. 2019. Stata Statistical Software: Release 16. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. 2020a. “American Community Survey (ACS).” https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs.
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. 2020b. “County Population Totals: 2010–2019.” https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2010s-counties-total.html.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019, September 24. “Economic News Release: Table 1. Workers who could Work at Home, Did Work at Home, and were Paid for Work at Home, by Selected Characteristics, Averages for the Period 2017–2018.” https://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex2.t01.htm.
   Google Scholar
• WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health. 2008. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity Through Action on the Social Determinants of Health: Commission on Social Determinants of Health Final Report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., and C. Collins. 2001. “Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health.” Public Health Reports 116 (5): 404–416. doi:10.1093/phr/116.5.404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2020, February 28. “Report of the Who-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19).” https://www.who.int/publications-detail/report-of-the-who-china-joint-mission-on-coronavirus-disease-2019-(covid-19).
   Google Scholar
• Yang, T.-C., S.-w. Emily Choi, and F. Sun. 2020. “COVID-19 Cases in US Counties: Roles of Racial/Ethnic Density and Residential Segregation.” Ethnicity & Health, 1–11. doi:10.1080/13557858.2020.1830036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, Q., C. Salvador, I. Melani, M. Berg, and S. Kitayama. 2020. The Lethal Spiral: Racial Segregation And Economic Disparity Jointly Exacerbate the COVID-19 Fatality in Large American Cities.
   Google Scholar