2,979
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The Politics of Fiscal Legitimacy in Developmental States: Emergency Taxes in Argentina Under Kirchnerism

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon

References

  • Acemoglu, D., García-Jimeno, C., and Robinson, J.A., 2015. State capacity and economic development: a network approach. American economic review, 105 (8), 2364–2409.
  • Adamovsky, E., 2019. La Historia de La Clase Media Argentina. Buenos Aires: Crítica.
  • Agrofy, 2007. Siguen las críticas por las retenciones. Agrofy News, 12 Nov. Available from: https://news.agrofy.com.ar/noticia/72263/siguen-las-criticas-por-las-retenciones [Accessed 21 July 2020].
  • Agrofy, 2018. Macri sobre retenciones: ‘Sabemos que es un impuesto malo pero es una emergencia’. Agrofy News, 3 Sep. Available from: https://news.agrofy.com.ar/noticia/177041/macri-retenciones-sabemos-que-es-impuesto-malo-pero-es-emergencia [Accessed 24 June 2020].
  • Arditi, B., 2008. Arguments about the left turns in Latin America: a post-liberal politics? Latin American research review, 43 (3), 59–81.
  • Artana, D. 2019. Interview.
  • Balakrishnan, R., and Toscani, F., 2018. How the commodity boom helped tackle poverty and inequality in Latin America – IMF Blog. IMF Blog, 21 June. Available from: https://blogs.imf.org/2018/06/21/how-the-commodity-boom-helped-tackle-poverty-and-inequality-in-latin-america/ [Accessed 25 June 2020].
  • Barsky, O., and Dávila, M. 2008. La Rebelión Del Campo. Historia Del Conflicto Agrario Argentino.
  • Bergman, L., and Gray, K. 2007. Argentine first lady to run for president - Reuters.
  • Bertoli, R. 2019. Interview.
  • Bonvecchi, A., and Giraudy, A., 2007. Argentina: crecimiento económico y concentración del poder institucional. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 27, 29–42.
  • Bonvecchi, A., and Lodola, G., 2011. The dual logic of intergovernmental transfers: presidents, governors, and the politics of coalition-building in Argentina. Publius: the journal of federalism, 41 (2), 179–206.
  • Brautigam, D., 2008. Introduction: taxation and state-building in developing countries. In: D. Brautigam, O.-H. Fjeldstad, and M. Moore, eds. Taxation and State-Building in developing countries: capacity and consent. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–33.
  • Brondolo, J. 2009. Collecting taxes during an economic crisis: challenges and policy options, No. SPN/09/17. IMF.
  • Bruton, H., 1998. A reconsideration of import substitution. Journal of economic literature, 36 (2), 1–28.
  • Bulmer-Thomas, V., 2003. The economic history of Latin America since independence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Burchardt, H.-J., and Dietz, K., 2014. (Neo-)extractivism – a new challenge for development theory from Latin America. Third world quarterly, 35 (3), 468–486.
  • Cabot, D. 2007. El país de la emergencia. La Nación, Buenos Aires, 18 Feb.
  • Calvo, E., and Murillo, M.V., 2012. Argentina: the persistence of peronism. Journal of democracy, 23 (2), 148–161.
  • Cantamutto, F., Schorr, M., and Wainer, A., 2016. El sector externo de la economía argentina durante los gobiernos del Kirchnerismo (2003–2015). Realidad Económica, 304, 41–73.
  • Castro, L., and Díaz Frers, L., 2008. Las Retenciones Sobre La Mesa: Del Conflicto a Una Estrategia de Desarrollo. Buenos Aires: CIPPEC.
  • Catterberg, G., and Palanza, V., 2012. Argentina: dispersión de la oposición y el auge de cristina fernández de klrchner. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 32 (1), 3–30.
  • Cetrángolo, O., and Gómez Sabaini, J.C., 2010. Tax policy in Argentina: between solvency and emergency. In: R.H. Gordon, ed. Taxation in developing countries: six case studies and policy implications. New York: Columbia University Press, 305.
  • Cetrángolo, O., Jiménez, J.P., and Vega, D., 1998. Algunas reflexiones sobre el federalismo fiscal en la Argentina. Apuntes para el diseño de un nuevo sistema de coparticipación federal de impuestos. Desarrollo Económico, 38, 293.
  • Cheibub, J.A., Elkins, Z., and Ginsburg, T., 2011. Latin American presidentialism in comparative and historical perspective. Texas law review, 89 (7), 1707–1739.
  • Chudnovsky, D., and López, A., 2007. The elusive quest for growth in Argentina. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Cingolani, L., Thomsson, K., and de Crombrugghe, D., 2015. Minding weber more than ever? The impacts of state capacity and bureaucratic autonomy on development goals. World development, 72, 191–207.
  • Collier, R., and Collier, D., 2002. Shaping the political arena. Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press.
  • Colombres, M. 2008. Indignación en las entidades rurales. La Nación, 12 March.
  • Coviello, R., 2014. El posicionamiento de la Unión Industrial Argentina durante el conflicto agropecuario de 2008. Realidad Económica, 282, 125–151.
  • Craviotti, C., 2008. Empleo agrario y ruralidad ampliada. Revista de Estudios Geográficos, 4 (4), 1–18.
  • Cufré, D. 2007. Un aumento que busca parar la inflación. Página12, 11 Aug.
  • Cufré, D. 2020. Las fake news sobre la rotura de silobolsas. Página12, 4 July.
  • Damill, M., Frenkel, R., and Rapetti, M., 2015. Macroeconomic policy in Argentina during 2002–2013. Comparative economic studies, 57 (3), 369–400.
  • D’Arcy, M. 2011. Why do citizens assent to pay tax? Legitimacy, taxation and the African State, No. 126, Dublin.
  • Daude, C., and Melguizo, Á. 2010. Taxation and more representation? On fiscal policy, social mobility and democracy in Latin America, No. 294.
  • Dborkin, D., and Feldman, G., 2008. Los ingresos públicos. In: G. Filc, ed. Las Políticas Fiscales En La Argentina: Un Complejo Camino Hacia La Equidad y La Eficiencia. Buenos Aires: CIPPEC, 195–236.
  • De Luca, M., and Malamud, A., 2010. Argentina: Turbulencia económica, polarización social y realineamiento político. Revista de Ciencia Política, 30 (2), 173–189.
  • De Paiva Abreu, M., 2006. The external context. In: V. Bulmer-Thomas, J. Coatsworth, and R. Cortés Conde, eds. The Cambridge economic history of Latin America, volume II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 101–135.
  • De Riz, L., 2008. La Argentina, una vez más en la encrucijada. Temas y Debates, 16, 9–27.
  • EFE, 2007. Argentina aumenta impuesto a exportación de granos, como temían agricultores. ElEconomista.Es. Available from: https://www.eleconomista.es/empresas-finanzas/noticias/309163/11/07/Argentina-aumenta-impuesto-a-exportacion-de-granos-como-temian-agricultores.html.
  • Ervasti, H., and Hjerm, M., 2012. Inmigration, trust, and support for the welfare state. In: H. Ervasti, J.G. Andersen, and K. Ringdal, eds. The future of the welfare state. Edward Elgar, 153–172.
  • Etchemendy, S., and Collier, R., 2007. Down but not out: union resurgence and segmented neocorporatism in Argentina (2003–2007). Politics & society, 35 (3), 363–401.
  • Evans, P., 1995. Embedded autonomy: states and industrial transformation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Fairfield, T., 2011. Business power and protest: Argentina’s agricultural producers protest in comparative context. Studies in comparative international development, 46 (4), 424–453.
  • Fairfield, T., 2015. Private wealth and public revenue in Latin America : business power and tax politics. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Fernández, C. 2007. Discurso de la Presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner en la Asamblea Legislativa. Casa Rosada, 10 Dec. Available from: https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/archivo/16462-blank-35472369 [Accessed 22 July 2020].
  • Fernández, C. 2008. Dicurso de Cristina contra el campo oligarca. YouTube. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bit9cnIpN94 [Accessed 30 July 2020].
  • Filc, G., 2008. El gasto público en la Argentina. In: G. Filc, ed. Las Políticas Fiscales En La Argentina: Un Complejo Camino Hacia La Equidad y La Eficiencia. Buenos Aires: CIPPEC, 107–158.
  • Fiszbein, M., 2015. La economía del stop and go: las ideas estructuralistas en Argentina, 1945–1976. Desarrollo Económico, 55 (216), 187–2010.
  • Freytes, C., and O’Farrell, J., 2017. Conflictos Distributivos en la Agricultura de Exportación en la Argentina Reciente (2003–2015). Desarrollo Económico, 57 (221), 181–196.
  • Gerchunoff, P., and Kacef, O. 2016. ¿Y Ahora Qué Hacemos? La Economía Política Del Kirchnerismo, No. 87, No, Vol. 87.
  • Gerchunoff, P., and Rapetti, M., 2016. La economía argentina y su conflicto distributivo estructural (1930–2015). El Trimerstre Económico, 83 (2), 225–272.
  • Gezmiş, H., 2018. From neoliberalism to neo-developmentalism? The political economy of post-crisis Argentina (2002–2015). New political economy, 23 (1), 66–87.
  • Giraudo, M.E., 2017. Uneven development and the governance of agricultural commodity booms: the case of soybean in South America. Warwick: Warwick University.
  • Giraudo, M.E., 2021. Taxing the ‘crop of the century’: the role of institutions in governing the soy boom in South America. Globalizations, 18 (4), 516–532.
  • Gold, T., and Peña, A.M., 2019. Protests, signaling, and elections: conceptualizing opposition-movement interactions during Argentina’s anti-government protests (2012-2013). Social movement studies, 18 (3), 324–345.
  • Gómez Sabaini, J.C. 2019. Interview.
  • Gómez Sabaíni, J.C., Martorano, B., and Morán, D., 2016. Taxation and inequality: lessons from Latin America. In: World social science report 2016 - challenging inequalities: pathways to a just world. Paris: UNESCO, 206–210.
  • Gras, C., and Hernández, V. 2009. “Son Los Piquetes de La Abundancia”: Actores y Estado En El Conflicto Agrario En Argentina, Asociación de Estudios Latinoamericanos, Rio de Janeiro.
  • Gras, C., and Hernández, V., 2016. Radiografía Del Nuevo Campo Argentino: Del Terrateniente Al Empresario Transnacional. Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI.
  • Grinberg, N., 2013. Capital accumulation and ground-rent in Brazil: 1953–2008. International review of applied economics, 27 (4), 449–471.
  • Grinberg, N., and Starosta, G., 2014. From global capital accumulation to varieties of centre-leftism in South America: the cases of Brazil and Argentina. Leiden: Brill.
  • Grugel, J., and Riggirozzi, P., 2012. Post-neoliberalism in Latin America: rebuilding and reclaiming the state after crisis. Development and change, 43 (1), 1–21.
  • Grugel, J., and Riggirozzi, P., 2018. Neoliberal disruption and neoliberalism’s afterlife in Latin America: what is left of post-neoliberalism? Critical social policy, 38 (3), 547–566.
  • Haggard, S., and Kaufman, R.R., 2008. Development, democracy and welfare states: Latin America, East Asia, and Eastern Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Hora, R., 2001. The landowners of the Argentine pampas: a social and political history 1860–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Hora, R., 2010. La Crisis del Campo del Otoño de 2008. Desarrollo Económico, 50 (197), 81–111.
  • Hora, R., 2020. ¿Qué es y qué quiere el campo argentino? Nueva Sociedad, 287, 11–23.
  • Infobae, 2004. Reunidos con Kirchner, ruralistas apoyaron retenciones. Infobae, 19 Aug. Available from: https://www.infobae.com/2004/08/19/133937-reunidos-kirchner-ruralistas-apoyaron-retenciones/ [Accessed 20 July 2020].
  • Infocampo, 2008. La dirigencia del campo pidió que no se use la excusa del gasto social para aplicar impuestos confiscatorios al agro. Infocampo, 10 June. Available from: https://www.infocampo.com.ar/la-dirigencia-del-campo-pidio-que-no-se-use-la-excusa-del-gasto-social-para-aplicar-impuestos-confiscatorios-al-agro/ [accessed 30 July 2020].
  • Iñigo Carrera, J., 2006. Argentina: the reproduction of capital accumulation through political crisis. Historical materialism, 14 (1), 185–219.
  • Katz, J., and Kosacoff, B., 2000. Import-substituting industrialization in Argentina, 1940–80: its achievements and shortcomings. In: E. Cárdenas, J. Ocampo, and R. Thorp, eds. An economic history of twentieth-century Latin America. London: Palgrave, 282–313.
  • Kirchner, N. 2003. DISCURSO DEL SEÑOR PRESIDENTE DE LA NACIÓN, DOCTOR NÉSTOR KIRCHNER, ANTE LA HONORABLE ASAMBLEA LEGISLATIVA. Casa Rosada. Available from: https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/archivo/24414-blank-18980869 [Accessed 27 July 2020].
  • Kosacoff, B., 2007. Crisis, Recuperación y Nuevos Dilemas. La Economía Argentina, 2002–2007. B Kosacoff, ed. Buenos Aires: CEPAL.
  • Krakowiak, F. 2009. Otro lockout en marcha. Página12, 6 Feb.
  • Leguizamón, A., 2014. Modifying Argentina: GM soy and socio-environmental change. Geoforum, 53, 149–160.
  • Levi, M., 1988. Of rule and revenue. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Levi, M., Sacks, A., and Tyler, T., 2009. Conceptualizing legitimacy, measuring legitimating beliefs. American behavioral scientist, 53 (3), 354–375.
  • Levitsky, S., and Murillo, M.V., 2003. Argentina weathers the storm. Journal of democracy, 14 (4), 152–166.
  • Levitsky, S., and Murillo, M.V., 2008. Argentina: from Kirchner to Kirchner. Journal of democracy, 19 (2), 16–30.
  • Lewis, C., 1975. Anglo-Argentine trade 1945–1965. In: D. Rock, ed. Argentina in the twentieth century. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd, 114–134.
  • Lieberman, E., 2001. National political community and the politics of income taxation in Brazil and South Africa in the twentieth century. Politics & society, 29 (4), 515–555.
  • LN, 2003. Para Kirchner llegó la hora de la verdad. La Nación, Buenos Aires, 24 May.
  • LN, 2007. La SRA, contra las retenciones. La Nación, Buenos Aires, 4 Nov.
  • Lousteau, M. 2008. Anuncio de las retenciones móviles (1) 11/03/2008-. YouTube. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgzq-jvEIIo [Accessed 30 July 2020].
  • Lupu, N., 2016. The end of the Kirchner era. Journal of democracy, 27 (2), 35–49.
  • Malamud, A., 2015. Social revolution or political takeover?: The Argentine collapse of 2001 reassessed. Latin American perspectives, 42 (1), 11–26.
  • Malloy, J.M., 1993. Statecraft, social policy, and governance in Latin America. Governance, 6 (2), 220–274.
  • Mangonnet, J., and Murillo, M.V., 2020. Protests of abundance: distributive conflict over agricultural rents during the commodities boom in Argentina, 2003–2013. Comparative political studies, 53 (8), 1223–1258.
  • Mangonnet, J., Murillo, M.V., and Rubio, J.M., 2018. Local economic voting and the agricultural boom in Argentina, 2007–2015. Latin American politics and society, 60 (8), 27–53.
  • Mann, M., 1984. The autonomous power of the state: its origins, mechanisms and results. European journal of sociology, 25 (2), 185–213.
  • Manzetti, L., 1992. The evolution of agricultural interest groups in Argentina. Journal of Latin American studies, 24 (3), 585–616.
  • Manzetti, L., 2016. Renationalization in Argentina, 2005–2013. Latin American politics and society, 58 (1), 3–28.
  • Martin, I., Mehrotra, A., and Prasad, M., 2009. The thunder of history: the origins and development of the new fiscal sociology. In: I. Martin, A. Mehrotra, and M. Prasad, eds. The new fiscal sociology: taxation in comparative and historical perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–28.
  • Mazzuca, S., 2013. The rise of rentier populism. Journal of democracy, 24 (2), 108–122.
  • Mazzuca, S., 2021. Latecomer state formation: political geography and capacity failure in Latin America. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Moore, M., 2004. Revenues, state formation, and the quality of governance in developing countries. International political science review, 25 (3), 297–319.
  • Nem Singh, J., 2014. Towards post-neoliberal resource politics? The international political economy (IPE) of oil and copper in Brazil and Chile. New political economy, 19 (3), 329–358.
  • Nem Singh, J., 2018. Governing natural resources. In: P. Riggirozzi, and C. Wylde, eds. Handbook of South American governance. Abingdon: Routledge, 355–370.
  • OECD, 2020. Revenue statistics in Latin America and the Caribbean 2020. OECD. doi:https://doi.org/10.1787/68739b9b-en-esm.
  • P12, 2007. Repercusiones por la medida. Pagina12, 8 Nov.
  • Payne, A., and Phillips, N., 2010. Development. Cambridge: Polity.
  • Peralta Ramos, M., 2019. Una aproximación al análisis del peronismo*. Realidad Económica, 321, 85–107.
  • Pereyra, S., 2017. Protest, social movements, and malaise in political representation in Argentina. In: A. Joignant, M. Morales, and C. Fuentes, eds. Malaise in representation in Latin American countries. New York: Palgrave, 235–256.
  • Pérez Trento, N., 2021. Social classes and Capital Accumulation in recent Argentina: The 2008 agrarian conflict. Latin American perspectives. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X20988697.
  • Perfil, 2007a. Carrió pidió al Gobierno que deje ‘en paz’ al campo. Perfil, 15 Nov.
  • Perfil, 2007b. Hay actividades en crisis por retenciones del Gobierno. Perfil, 12 Dec.
  • Perochena, C., Rodríguez Rey, S., and Judzik, D. 2020. 2001 (parte 2): del default al fin de la convertibilidad. Hay Que Pasar El Invierno.
  • Richardson, N., 2009. Export-oriented populism: commodities and coalitions in Argentina. Studies in comparative international development, 44 (3), 228–255.
  • RN, 2002a. Retenciones: exportadores advierten efectos negativos. Río Negro, 11 March. Available from: https://www.rionegro.com.ar/retenciones-exportadores-advierten-efectos-negativos-GEHRN02031117112002/ [Accessed 20 July 2020].
  • RN, 2002b. Admiten que las retenciones no son un buen impuesto. Río Negro, 8 March, p. RN.
  • Rodríguez, J., and Arceo, N. 2006. Renta Agraria y Ganancias Extraordinarias En La Argentina 1990–2003, No. 04.
  • Romero, L., 2002. A history of Argentina in the twentieth century. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
  • Rose-Ackerman, S., Desierto, D., and Volosin, N., 2011. Hyper-presidentialism: separation of powers without checks and balances in Argentina and Philippines. Berkeley journal of international law, 29 (1), 246–344.
  • Ross, M.L., 2004. Does taxation lead to representation? British journal of political science, 34 (2), 229–249.
  • Rovira Kaltwasser, C., 2011. Toward post-neoliberalism in Latin America? Latin American research review, 46 (2), 225–234.
  • Rzezak, H., 2008. El conflicto entre el gobierno y el campo en Argentina. Revista de Ciencias Sociales de La Universidad Iberoamericana, 3 (6), 82–106.
  • Sachs, J.D. 1989. Social conflict and populist policies in Latin America. NBER Working Papers Series, No. 2987, pp. 1–33.
  • Sánchez Román, J.A., 2012. Taxation and society in twentieth-century Argentina. London: Palgrave.
  • Sandbrook, R., 2011. Polanyi and post-neoliberalism in the global south: dilemmas of re-embedding the economy. New political economy, 16 (4), 415–443.
  • SGE, 2019. Balance de Gestión En Energía 2016–2019. Buenos Aires: Department of Energy for the Government of Argentina.
  • Silva, E., 2018. Conclusion: reflections on the second wave of popular incorporation for a post-neoliberal era. In: E. Silva, and F. Rossi, eds. Reshaping the political arena in Latin America: from resisting neoliberalism to the second incorporation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 309–324.
  • Silva, E., and Rossi, F., 2018. Introduction: reshaping the political arena in Latin America. In: E. Silva, and F. Rossi, eds. Reshaping the political arena in Latin America: from resisting neoliberalism to the second incorporation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 23–32.
  • Skocpol, T., 1979. State and revolution. Theory and society, 7 (1/2), 7–95.
  • Skocpol, T., 1985. Bringing the state back in: strategies of analysis in current research. In: P.B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, and T. Skocpol, eds. Bringing the state back in. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3–38.
  • Sourrouille, J.V., and Ramos, A.H., 2013. El Trigo y las Ganancias del IAPI entre 1946 y 1949: Miranda y la política económica en los inicios del Peronismo. Desarollo Económico, 53 (209/210), 27–56.
  • Stoessel, S., 2014. Giro a la izquierda en la América Latina del siglo XXI: Revisitando los debates académicos. Polis: Revista Latinoamericana, 39.
  • Streb, J. 2019. Interview.
  • Svampa, M., 2013. Resource extractivism and alternatives: Latin American perspectives on development. In: M. Lang, and D. Mokrani, eds. Beyond development: alternative visions from Latin America. Quito: Fundacion Rosa Luxemburg, 117.
  • Tagina, M.L., and Varetto, C., 2013. Argentina: del apogeo electoral a la inminencia de la crisis sucesoria. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 33 (1), 3–34.
  • Taylor, A.M., 2018. The Argentina Paradox: microexplanations and macropuzzles. Latin American economic review, 27 (3), 1–17.
  • Tilly, C., 1985. War making and state making as organized crime. In: P. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, and T. Skocpol, eds. Bringing the state back in. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 169–191.
  • Timmons, J.F., and Garfias, F., 2015. Revealed corruption, taxation, and fiscal accountability: evidence from Brazil. World development, 70, 13–27.
  • Varise, F. 2003. Kirchner dio una señal al agro, pero no bajará las retenciones. La Nación, 5 Aug. Available from: https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/kirchner-dio-una-senal-al-agro-pero-no-bajara-las-retenciones-nid516902/ [Accessed 20 July 2020].
  • Veltmeyer, H., 2012. The natural resource dynamics of postneoliberalism in Latin America: new developmentalism or extractivist imperialism? Studies in political economy, 90 (1), 57–85.
  • Von Haldenwang, C., 2008. Taxation, social cohesion, and fiscal decentralization in Latin America. Bonn: Vol. DIE Discus, Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik.
  • Von Haldenwang, C., 2010. Taxation, fiscal decentralisation and legitimacy: the ole of semi-autonomous tax agencies in Peru. Development policy review, 28 (6), 643–667.
  • Ward, C., and Aalbers, M.B., 2016. Virtual special issue editorial essay: ‘The shitty rent business’: what’s the point of land rent theory? Urban studies, 53 (9), 1760–1783.
  • Weyland, K., 2009. The rise of Latin America’s two lefts: insights from rentier state theory. Comparative politics, 41 (2), 145–164.
  • WITS, 2020. WITS. World Bank. Available from: https://wits.worldbank.org/ [Accessed 30 July 2020].
  • Wylde, C., 2016. Post-neoliberal developmental regimes in Latin America: Argentina under Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. New political economy, 21 (3), 322–341.
  • Wylde, C., 2018. Twenty-first century developmental states? Argentina under the Kirchners. Third world quarterly, 39 (6), 1115–1132.
  • Yang, H., and Zhao, D., 2015. Performance legitimacy, state autonomy and China’s economic miracle. Journal of contemporary China, 24 (91), 64–82.
  • Yappert, S. 2008. Ella y el campo. Página12.