References
- Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. doi: 10.1257/jep.31.2.211
- Andelman, D. A. (2017, April 13). The frightening similarities between the U.S. and French elections. CNN. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/13/opinions/us-french-elections-spot-the-difference-andelman-opinion/index.html
- Aro, J. (2016). The cyberspace war: Propaganda and trolling as warfare tools. European View, 15, 121–132. doi: 10.1007/s12290-016-0395-5
- Auchard, E., & Menn, J. (2017, April 17). Facebook cracks down on 30,000 fake accounts in France. Reuters.
- Baird, J. (2017, January 4). State-sponsored hacking: Why you should care. Next Advisor. Retrieved from http://www.nextadvisor.com/blog/2017/01/04/state-sponsored-hacking-why-you-should-care/
- Ben-Shahar, O. (2017, November 17). The non-voters who decided the election: Trump won because of lower democratic turnout. Forbes.
- Bergmann, M., & Kenney, C. (2017, June 6). War by other means: Russian active measures and the weaponization of information. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2017/06/06/433345/war-by-other-means/
- Brady, H., & Collier, D. (Eds.). (2004). Rethinking social inquiry: Diverse tools, shared standards. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
- Brangetto, P., & Veenendaal, M. A. (2016). “Influence cyber operations: The use of cyberattacks in support of Influence Operations”, in Cyber Conflict (CyCon), 2016 8th International Conference on, pp. 113–126. IEEE, 2016. Retrieved from https://ccdcoe.org/cycon/2016/proceedings/08_brangetto_veenendaal.pdf
- Brattberg, E., & Maurer, T. (2018, May 23). Russian election interference: Europe’s counter to fake news and cyberattacks. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved from https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/05/23/russian-election-interference-europe-s-counter-to-fake-news-and-cyber-attacks-pub-76435
- Calabresi, M. (2017, May 19). Inside Russia’s social media war on America. Time.
- Carpenter, S. D. (2017, May 8). U.S., French elections: Different results. Also, different processes. Star Tribune.
- Carson, J. (2017, March 16). What is fake news? Its origins and how it grew in 2016. The Telegraph.
- Chandler, D., & Munday, R. (2016). A dictionary of social media. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Cohen-Grillet, P. (2017, 17 March). French election faces high cyber threat. EU Observer. Retrieved from https://euobserver.com/elections/137285
- Croft, A., & de Clercq, G. (2017, May 6). France fights to keep Macron email hack from distorting election. Reuters.
- Daniels, L. (2017, April 23). How Russia hacked the French election. Politico.
- De Vries, C., & Hoffmann, I. (2017, May 5). Is right the new left? Right wing voters in France and in the EU and how they differ. EUpinions 2017/2, Bertelsmann Stiftung. Retrieved from https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/user_upload/EZ_eupinions_2017_02_ENG.pdf
- Dearden, L. (2017, May 6). Emmanuel Macron hacked emails: French media ordered by electoral commission not to publish content of messages. The Independent.
- Dickey, C. (2017, May 6). Did Macron outsmart campaign hackers? The Daily Beast. Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/did-macron-outsmart-campaign-hackers
- Douglas, D. M. (2016). Doxing: A conceptual analysis. Ethics and Information Technology, 18(3), 199–210. doi: 10.1007/s10676-016-9406-0
- Enten, H. (2016, December 23). How much did wikileaks hurt Hillary Clinton? FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved from https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/wikileaks-hillary-clinton/
- Erber, R., & Lau, R. R. (1990). Political cynicism revisited: An information-processing reconciliation of policy-based and incumbency-based interpretations of changes in trust in government. American Journal of Political Science, 34(1), 236–253. doi: 10.2307/2111517
- Erickson, A. (2017, May 6). Macron’s emails got hacked. Here’s why French voters won’t hear much about them before Sunday’s election. The Washington Post.
- Evron, G. (2017, May 8). Analysing a counter intelligence cyber operations: How Macron just changed cyber security forever. Hackernoon. Retrieved from https://hackernoon.com/analyzing-a-counter-intelligence-cyber-operation-how-macron-just-changed-cyber-security-forever-22553abb038b
- First Draft. (2017, February 6). French newsrooms unite to fight election misinformation with the launch of crosscheck. Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy. Retrieved from https://firstdraftnews.com/crosscheck-launches/
- Frederiksen, L. (2017). Fake news. Public Services Quarterly, 13(2), 103–107. doi: 10.1080/15228959.2017.1301231
- Fried, D., & Polyakova, A. (2018). Democratic defense against disinformation. Washington, DC: Atlantic Council.
- George, A., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Goidel, K., Gaddie, K., & Ehrl, M. (2017). Watching the news and support for democracy: Why media systems matter. Social Science Quarterly, 98(3), 836–855. doi: 10.1111/ssqu.12430
- Gottfried, J. (2016, July 14). Most Americans already feel election coverage fatigue. Pew Research Centre, (Washington, DC). Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/14/most-americans-already-feel-election-coverage-fatigue/
- Grabe, M. E., Zhou, S., & Barnett, B. (2001). Explicating sensationalism in television news: Content and the bells and whistles of form. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45(4), 635–655. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4504_6
- Guess, A. M. (2016, October 7). Media choice and moderation: Evidence from online tracking data, Working Paper. Retrieved from https://www.dropbox.com/s/uk005hhio3dysm8/GuessJMP.pdf?dl=0
- Hacquebord, F. (2017). Two years of pawn storm: Examining an increasingly relevant threat. TrendsLabs research paper (Trend Micro). Retrieved from https://documents.trendmicro.com/assets/wp/wp-two-years-of-pawn-storm.pdf
- Harris, M. (2016, November 14). Media post-mortem on the 2016 presidential election. mediaQuant. Retrieved from http://www.mediaquant.net/2016/11/a-media-post-mortem-on-the-2016-presidential-election/
- Higgins, A. (2017, April 17). It’s France’s turn to worry about election meddling by Russia. New York Times.
- Horobin, W. (2017, January 23). French vote reflects split in ruling party. Wall Street Journal.
- Howard, P., Bradshaw, S., Kollanyi, B., Desigaud, C., & Bolsover, G. (2017, April 22). Junk news and bots during the French presidential election: What are French voters sharing over Twitter? Comprop Data Memo, Project on Computational Propaganda, (Oxford, UK). Retrieved from http://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/89/2017/04/What-Are-French-Voters-Sharing-Over-Twitter-v9.pdf
- Howard, P., Kollanyi, B., Bradshaw, S., & Neudert, L.-M. (2017, September 28). Social media, news and political information during the US election: Was polarizing content concentrated in swing states? Comprop Data Memo, Project on Computational Propaganda, (Oxford, UK). Retrieved from http://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/89/2017/09/Polarizing-Content-and-Swing-States.pdf
- Isaac, M., & Wakabayashi, D. (2017, October 30). Russian influence reached 126 million through Facebook alone. The New York Times.
- Iyengar, S., & Westwood, S. J. (2015). Fear and loathing across party lines: New evidence on group polarisation. American Journal of Political Science, 59(3), 690–707. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12152
- Kirby, J. (2018, January 31). Twitter let more than 1 million users know they engaged with Russian Propaganda. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/2018/1/19/16911590/twitter-emails-users-russia-propaganda-accounts
- Kuo, D. (2015, October 10). Polarisation and partisanship. The American Interest.
- Ladd, J. W. (2017, June 2). Negative partisanship may be the most toxic form of polarization. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/mischiefs-of-faction/2017/6/2/15730524/negative-partisanship-toxic-polarization
- Lanoszka, A. (2016). Russian hybrid warfare and extended deterrence in eastern Europe. International Affairs, 92(1), 175–195. doi: 10.1111/1468-2346.12509
- Larson, E., Darilek, R. E., Gibran, D., Nichiporuk, B., Richardson, A., Schwartz, L. H., & Thurston, C. Q. (2009). Foundations of effective influence operations: A framework for enhancing army capabilities. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
- Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Le Miere, J. (2017, May 9). Russia election hacking: Countries where the Kremlin has allegedly sought to sway votes. Newsweek.
- Levin, D. H. (2016a, September 19). Partisan electoral interventions by the great powers: Introducing the PEIG dataset. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 1–19.
- Levin, D. H. (2016b). When the great power gets a vote: The effects of great power electoral interventions on election results. International Studies Quarterly, 60(2), 189–202. doi: 10.1093/isq/sqv016
- Lindsay, J. R. (2013). Stuxnet and the limits of cyber warfare. Security Studies, 22(3), 365–404. doi: 10.1080/09636412.2013.816122
- Lindsay, J. R. (2014/15). The impact of China on cybersecurity: Fiction and friction. International Security, 39(3), 7–47. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00189
- Lipton, E., Sanger, D. E., & Shane, S. (2016, December 13). The perfect weapon: How Russian cyberpower invaded the U.S. The New York Times.
- Lloyd, M. (2017, May 5). French election: Why Vladimir Putin might want a marine le pen victory. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-05/why-putin-might-want-a-le-pen-victory/8498302
- Mackey, R. (2017, May 7). There are no ‘Macron Leaks’ in France. Politically motivated hacking is not whistleblowing. The Intercept. Retrieved from https://theintercept.com/2017/05/06/no-macron-leaks-politically-motivated-hacking-not-whistleblowing/
- Mahoney, J. (2010). After KKV: The new methodology of qualitative research. World Politics, 62(1), 120–147. doi: 10.1017/S0043887109990220
- Marthaler, S. (2010). La course au centre: Policy convergence and partisanship in France, 1981–2002. French Politics, Culture & Society, 28, 75–95. doi: 10.3167/fpcs.2010.280207
- McKew, M. (2018, February 16). Did Russia affect the 2016 election? It’s now undeniable. Wired.
- Miller, N. (2017, April 22). French election: Fake news spread ahead of presidential poll. The Sydney Morning Herald.
- Mueller, R. (2018, February 16). United States of America v. Internet Research Agency LLC [and 15 others]. United States District Court for the District of Columbia, case 1:18-cr-00032-DLF.
- Nakashima, E., Entous, A., & Miller, G. (2017, June 25). Obama’s secret struggle to punish Russia for Putin’s election assault. The Washington Post.
- Newman, L. H. (2015, December 24). Hacker lexicon: What is the attribution problem? Wired. Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/2016/12/hacker-lexicon-attribution-problem/
- Nossiter, A., Sanger, D. E., & Perlroth, N. (2017, May 9). Hackers came, but the French were prepared. The New York Times.
- Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). (2017, January 6). Assessing Russian activities and intentions in recent US elections. Retrieved from https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/ICA_2017_01.pdf
- Ohlheiser, A. (2017, November 18). This is how Facebook’s fake-news writers make money. The Washington Post.
- Oliver, J. E., & Wood, T. J. (2014). Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion. American Journal of Political Science, 58, 952–966. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12084
- Patterson, T. E. (2016). News coverage of the 2016 general election: How the press failed the voters. Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy. Retrieved from https://shorensteincenter.org/news-coverage-2016-general-election/
- Perrott, K. (2016, November 16). ‘Fake news’ on social media influenced US election voters, experts say. ABC News. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-14/fake-news-would-have-influenced-us-election-experts-say/8024660
- Ragan, S. (2016, October 5). Hacking an election is about influence and disruption, not voting machines. CSO. Retrieved from https://www.csoonline.com/article/3126397/security/hacking-an-election-is-about-influence-and-disruption-not-voting-machines.html
- Rallings, C., Thrasher, M., & Borisyuk, G. (2003). Seasonal factors, voter fatigue and the costs of voting. Electoral Studies, 22, 65–79. doi: 10.1016/S0261-3794(01)00047-6
- Rid, T. (2017, March 30). Disinformation: A primer in Russian active measures and influence campaigns. Prepared remarks delivered to the Select Committee on Intelligence. United States Senate, 115th Cong.
- Rid, T., & Buchanan, B. (2015). Attributing cyber attacks. Journal of Strategic Studies, 38, 4–37. doi: 10.1080/01402390.2014.977382
- Rubin, A. J. (2017, May 6). France chooses a leader, and takes a step into the unknown. The New York Times.
- Saul, J., & Kutner, M. (2017, March 29). FBI Director James Comey tried to reveal Russian tampering months before election. Newsweek.
- Schultheis, E. (2017, May 6). The Macron leaks probably came too late to change the French election. The Atlantic.
- Scott, M. (2017, May 4). In French elections, alt-right messages and memes don’t translate. The New York Times.
- Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 93–109. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02843.x
- Shaffer, K., Carey, C. E., & Starling, B. (2017, May 5). Democracy hacked: A massive, pro-le pen disinformation campaign hits Twitter, 4chan, and the mainstream media. Data for Democracy. Retrieved from https://medium.com/data-for-democracy/democracy-hacked-a46c04d9e6d1
- Sharp, T. (2017). Theorizing cyber coercion: The 2014 North Korean operation against Sony. Journal of Strategic Studies, 40(7), 898–926. doi: 10.1080/01402390.2017.1307741
- Silverman, C. (2016, November 7). This analysis shows how viral fake election news stories outperformed real news on Facebook. BuzzFeed News. Retrieved from https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook?utm_term=.ybpzw4Wxb#.hemJn4wvg
- Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about false claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713–724. doi: 10.1086/426605
- Slayton, R. (2016/17). What is the cyber offense-defense balance? Conceptions, causes, and assessment. International Security, 41(3), 72–109. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00267
- Standish, R. (2017, March 1). Why is Finland able to fend off Putin’s information war? Foreign Policy.
- Stanley-Becker, I., & Nakashima, E. (2017, May 8). In France, a hack falls flat. The Washington Post.
- Stothard, M., & Hille, K. (2017, February 14). Macron campaign accuses Russia of using fake news to disrupt presidential race. The Financial Times.
- Timberg, C. (2016, November 24). Russian propaganda effort helped spread ‘fake news’ during election, experts say. Washington Post.
- Timberg, C., & Dwoskin, E. (2017, October 30). Russian content on Facebook, Google and Twitter reached far more users than companies first disclosed congressional testimony says. The Washington Post.
- Twitter Public Policy. (2017, September 28). Update: Russian interference in 2016 US election, bots, & misinformation. Press Release. Retrieved from https://blog.twitter.com/official/en_us/topics/company/2017/Update-Russian-Interference-in-2016--Election-Bots-and-Misinformation.html
- Uscinski, J. E., Klofstad, C., & Atkinson, M. D. (2016). What drives conspiratorial beliefs? The role of information cues and predispositions. Political Research Quarterly, 69(1), 57–71. doi: 10.1177/1065912915621621
- Van der Meer, S. (2015). Enhancing international cyber security: A key role for diplomacy. Security and Human Rights, 26, 193–205. doi: 10.1163/18750230-02602004
- Vinocur, N. (2017a, February 13). Emmanuel Macron aide blames Russia for hacking attempts. Politico.
- Vinocur, N. (2017b, February 15). France’s Hollande seeks ‘specific measures’ against election hacking. Politico.
- Walt, S. M. (2012, March 22). How our election cycle screws up our foreign policy. Foreign Policy.
- Weedon, J., Nuland, W., & Stamos, A. (2017, April 27). Information operations and Facebook. Facebook Security White Paper. Retrieved from https://fbnewsroomus.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/facebook-and-information-operations-v1.pdf
- Weisburd, A., Watts, C., & Berger, J. M. (2016, November 6). Trolling for Trump: How Russia is trying to destroy our democracy. War on the Rocks. Retrieved from https://warontherocks.com/2016/11/trolling-for-trump-how-russia-is-trying-to-destroy-our-democracy/
- Wendling, M. (2017, January 14). Conversations with a hacker: What Guccifer 2.0 Told Me. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-38610402
- Willsher, K. (2017, May 7). French media warned not to publish Emmanuel Macron leaks. The Guardian.