References
- Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2006). Paths of economic and political development. In B. R. Weingast & D. Wittman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political economy. Oxford University Press.
- Aktas, I. (2015). Uighur separatism and human rights: A contextual analysis. In M. Kosmala-Mozlowska (Ed.), Democracy and human rights in East Asia and beyond-critical essays. Collegium Civitas Press.
- Aliaksandr, H. (2022). Movement leadership and messaging platforms in preemptive repressive settings: Telegram and the Navalny Movement in Russia. Social Media and Society, 8(3), 1–14.
- Allen-Ebrahimian, B. (2019, November 24). Exposed: China’s operating manuals for mass internment and arrest by algorithm. International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. https://www.icij.org/investigations/china-cables/exposed-chinas-operating-manuals-for-mass-internmentand-arrest-by-algorithm/
- Amnesty International. (2021). Like we were enemies in a war: China’s mass internment, torture and persecution of Muslims in Xinjiang. https://xinjiang.amnesty.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/ASA_17_4137-2021_Full_report_ENG.pdf
- Andersen, R. (2020). The panopticon is already here. Atlantic, September, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/09/china-ai-surveillance/614197/
- Aras, B., & Oztig, L. I. (2021). Has the Arab spring spread to the Caucasus and Central Asia? Explaining regional diffusion and authoritarian resistance. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 23(3), 516–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2021.1888249
- Bakken, B. (2005). Crime, punishment, and policing in China. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. BBC News (2021) ‘AI Emotion-Detection Software Tested on Uyghurs.’ May 26, https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57101248 (accessed 8 September 2021)
- Bassiouni, M. C. (2013). Libya: From repression to revolution: A record of armed conflict and international law violations, 2011–2013. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
- Beach, D., & Pedersen, R. B. (2009). Process-tracing methods foundations and guidelines. University of Michigan Press.
- Beauchamp-Mustafaga, N. (2019). Bearing witness 10 years on: The July 2009 Riots in Xinjiang. The Diplomat, July 2019, https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/bearing-witness-10-years-on-the-july-2009-riots-in-xinjiang/
- Beger, A., & Hill, D. (2019). Examining repressive and oppressive state violence using the Ill-treatment and torture data. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 36(6), 626–644. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894219882352
- Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. T. (2005). Case studies and theory development in the social science. MIT Press.
- Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. T. (2015). Process tracing: From philosophical roots to best practices. In A. Bennett & J. T. Checkel (Eds.), Process tracing: From metaphor to analytic tool. Cambridge University Press.
- Bentham, J. (1997). Panopticon or the inspection house. In M. Bozovic (Ed.), Jeremy Bentham: The panopticon writings. Verso.
- Bloomberg News. (2018). China uses facial recognition to fence in villagers in far West, January 19, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-17/china-said-to-test-facial-recognition-fence-in-muslim-heavy-area
- Boix, C. (2003). Democracy and redistribution. Cambridge University Press.
- boyd, d., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical questions for big data, information. Communication & Society, 15(5), 662–679.
- Brayne, S. (2017). Big data surveillance: The case of policing. American Sociological Review, 82(5), 977–1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122417725865
- Byler, D. (2022). The camp fix: Infrastructural power and the ‘re-education labour regime’ in Turkic Muslim Industrial Parks in North-west China. The China Quarterly, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741022001618
- Byler, D., & Grose, T. (2018). China’s Surveillance Laboratory. Dissent Magazine, October 31, https://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/chinas-surveillance-laboratory
- Cain, G. (2021). The perfect police state: An undercover Odyssey into China’s terrifying surveillance dystopia of the future. Hachette Book Group.
- CAS. (2019). Understanding what is happening in Xinjiang: An Interview with Sean Roberts. August 16, https://criticalasianstudies.org/commentary/2019/8/16/201917-understanding-what-is-happening-in-xinjiang-an-interview-with-sean-roberts
- Chan, M., Yi, J., & Kuznetsov, D. (2022). Government digital repression and political engagement: A cross-national multilevel analysis examining the roles of online surveillance and censorship. The International Journal of Press/Politics. https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612221117106
- Chen, T. T. (2022). Production planning and control in semiconductor manufacturing: Big data analytics and industry 4.0 applications. Springer.
- Cingranelli, D. L., & Richards, D. L. (1999). Measuring the level, pattern, and sequence of government respect for physical integrity rights. International Studies Quarterly, 43(2), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/0020-8833.00126
- Danneman, N., & Ritter, E. H. (2014). Contagious rebellion and preemptive repression. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 58(2), 254–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002712468720
- Davenport, C. (1995). Multi-dimensional threat perception and state repression: An inquiry into why states apply negative sanctions. American Journal of Political Science, 39(3), 683–713. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111650
- Davenport, C. (1996). The weight of the past: Exploring lagged determinants of political repression. Political Research Quarterly, 49(2), 377–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299604900207
- Davenport, C. (2000). Introduction. In C. Davenport (Ed.), Paths to state repression: Human rights violations and contentious politics. Rowman and Littlefield.
- Davenport, C. (2007). State repression and political order. Annual Review of Political Science, 10(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.101405.143216
- De Jaegher, K., & Hoyer, B. (2019). Preemptive repression: Deterrence, backfiring, iron fists, and velvet gloves. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(2), 502–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002717750450
- Demeritt, J. H. R. (2015). Delegating death. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(3), 428–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002713515406
- Dutton, M. (2005). Policing Chinese politics. Duke University Press.
- Earl, J., Maher, T. V., & Pan, J. (2022). The digital repression of social movements, protest, and activism: A synthetic review. Science Advances, 8(10), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abl8198
- Earl, J., Sarah, A. S., & McCarthy, J. D. (2003). Protest under fire? Explaining the policing of protest. American Sociological Review, 68(4), 581–606. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519740
- East Turkestan Human Rights Watch. (2020). Dogu Turkistan’daki Toplama Kamplari [The concentration camps in East Turkestan] 19 August, https://www.ethrw.org/dogu-turkistandaki-toplama-kamplari/
- Easton, M. R., & Siverson, R. M. (2018). The urge to purge: Forecasting Erdogan’s political survival following the failed coup. Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, 43(4), 222–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0304375419842749
- Feldstein (2021). The rise of digital repression: How technology is reshaping power, politics, and resistance. Oxford University Press.
- Feldstein, S. (2019). The global expansion of AI surveillance. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/09/17/global-expansion-of-ai-surveillance-pub-79847
- Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage.
- Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage Books. 2nd ed., trans by Alan Sheridan.
- Foucault, M. (2002). Power: Essential works of Foucault 1954–1984. Penguin Books. Vol. 3 (edited by J. D. Faubion).
- Galič, M., et al. (2017). Bentham, deleuze and beyond: An overview of surveillance theories from the panopticon to participation Philosophy & Technology, 30(1), 9–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-016-0219-1
- George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case studies and theory development in social sciences. MIT Press.
- Gerring, J. (2017). Case study research: Principles and practices. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press.
- Goemans, H. E., Gleditsch, K. S., & Chizza, G. (2009). Introducing archigos: A dataset of political leaders. Journal of Peace Research, 46(2), 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308100719
- Gohdes, A. R. (2014). Repression in the digital age: Communication technology and the politics of state violence, Doctoral Dissertation, https://madoc.bib.uni-mannheim.de/37902/
- Gorman, L. (2021). China’s data ambitions: Strategy, emerging technologies, and implications for democracies. NBR, August 14, https://www.nbr.org/publication/chinas-data-ambitions-strategy-emerging-technologies-and-implications-for-democracies/#footnote2
- Grauer, Y. (2021). Revealed: massive Chinese Police Database. Intercept, January 29, https://theintercept.com/2021/01/29/china-uyghur-muslim-surveillance-police/
- Greitens, S. C., Lee, M., & Yazici, E. (2020). Counterterrorism and preventive repression: China’s changing strategy in Xinjiang. International Security, 44(3), 9–47. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00368
- Gurr, T. R. (1988). War, revolution, and the growth of the coercive state. Comparative Political Studies, 21(1), 45–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414088021001003
- Human Rights Pulse. (2021). Under the watchful eye of the CCP: Chinese Surveillance in Xinjiang, April 21, https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/under-the-watchful-eye-of-the-ccp-chinese-surveillance-in-xinjiang?rq = xinjiang
- Human Rights Watch. (2017a). China: Free Xinjiang ‘political education’ detainees. September 10, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/10/china-free-xinjiang-political-education-detainees
- Human Rights Watch. (2017b). Voice biometric collection threatens privacy, human rights watch news release. October 22, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/22/china-voice-biometric-collection-threatens-privacy
- Human Rights Watch. (2018). China: Big data fuels crackdown in minority region. February 26, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/26/china-big-data-fuels-crackdown-minority-region
- Human Rights Watch. (2019a). Interview: China’s ‘Big Brother’ app. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/05/01/interview-chinas-big-brother-app
- Human Rights Watch. (2019b). China’s algorithms of repression: Reverse engineering a Xinjiang police mass surveillance app. May 1, https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/05/01/chinas-algorithms-repression/reverse-engineering-xinjiang-police-mass
- Human Rights Watch. (2020). China: Big data program targets Xinjiang’s Muslims. December 9, https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/09/china-big-data-program-targets-xinjiangs-muslims
- IBM. (n/a). Big data analytics. https://www.ibm.com/analytics/big-data-analytics. Integrated Joint Operation
- Integrated Joint Operation Platform Daily Essentials Bulletin. (2017a). Backflow prevention, dispatching situation clues. No. 2, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6558502/China-Cables-IJOP-Daily-Bulletin-2-Enligsh.pdf
- Integrated Joint Operation Platform Daily Essentials Bulletin. (2017b). Four southern Xinjiang states integrated platform data notification and check situation. No. 14, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6558506/China-Cables-IJOP-Daily-Bulletin-14-English.pdf
- Integrated Joint Operation Platform Daily Essentials Bulletin. (2017c). Autonomous Regional Party Committee command for cracking down and assaulting on the front lines, New Organ. No. 20, https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/6558508/China-Cables-IJOP-Daily-Bulletin-20-English.pdf
- The Intercept. (2021). Revealed: Massive Chinese police database, January 29, https://theintercept.com/2021/01/29/china-uyghur-muslim-surveillance-police/
- Kam, S., & Clarke, M. (2021). Securitization, surveillance and ‘de-extremization’ in Xinjiang. International Affairs, 97(3), 625–642. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiab038
- King, G., Pan, J., & Roberts, M. E. (2013). How censorship in China allows government criticism but silences collective expression. American Political Science Review, 107(2), 326–343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055413000014
- Leibold, J. (2020). Surveillance in China’s Xinjiang region: Ethnic sorting, coercion, and inducement. Journal of Contemporary China, 29(121), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2019.1621529
- Lyon, D. (1994). The electronic eye: The rise of surveillance society. The University of Minnesota Press.
- Lyons, K. (2019). The world knows what is happening to Uighurs. Why has it been so slow to act? July 27, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/27/the-world-knows-what-is-happening-to-the-uighurs-why-has-it-been-so-slow-to-act
- Ma, A. (2019). China uses an intrusive surveillance app to track its Muslim minority, with technology that could be exported to the rest of the world. Here’s how it works. Insider, May 11, https://www.businessinsider.com/how-ijop-works-china-surveillance-app-for-muslim-uighurs-2019-5
- Nordas, R., & Davenport, C. (2013). Fight the youth: Youth bulges and state repression. American Journal of Political Science, 57(4), 926–940.
- Ouaissa et al. (2018). Big data analytics and computational intelligence for cybersecurity. Springer.
- Poe, S. C., Tate, C. N., & Keith, L. C. (1999). Repression of the human right to personal integrity revisited: A global cross-national study covering the years 1976-1993. International Studies Quarterly, 43(2), 291–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/0020-8833.00121
- Powell, J., Chacha, M., & Smith, G. E. (2019). Failed coups, democratization, and authoritarian entrenchment: Opening up or digging in? African Affairs, 118(471), 238–258. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ady050
- Proń, E., & Szwajnoch, E. (2020). Kyrgyz and Kazakh responses to China’s Xinjiang policy under Xi Jinping, Asian affairs. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2020.1827547.
- Ramzy, A., & Buckley, C. (2019). ‘Absolutely no mercy’: Leaked files expose how China organized mass detentions of Muslims. New York Times, November 16. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html
- Ritter, E. H., & Conrad, C. R. (2016). Preventing and responding to dissent: The observational challenges of explaining strategic repression. American Political Science Review, 110(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055415000623
- Roberts, S. R. (2018). The biopolitics of China’s ‘war on terror’ and the exclusion of the Uyghurs. Critical Asian Studies, 50(2), 232–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2018.1454111
- Roberts, S. R. (2020). The war on the Uyghurs: China’s internal campaign against a Muslim minority. Princeton University Press.
- SAS Institute. (2023). Big data analytics: What it is and why it matters. https://www.sas.com/en_us/insights/analytics/big-data-analytics.html
- SAS Institute. (n/a). Data for good: SAS corporate social responsibility. https://www.sas.com/content/dam/SAS/documents/corporate-collateral/brochures/csr-data-for-good-108877.pdf
- Schimmelfennig, F., Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. (2015). Efficient process tracing analyzing the causal mechanisms of European integration. In Process tracing: From metaphor to analytic tool. Cambridge University Press.
- Statista. (2021a). Expenditure on public security in China from 2010 to 2020, by government level. November 29, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1049749/china-public-security-spending-by-government-level/
- Statista. (2022). Expenditure on national defense in China from 2010 to 2020. January 18, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1049681/china-national-defense-spending/
- Steinberg, J., Loyle, C. E., & Carugati, F. (2022). Domestic digital repression and cyber peace. In S. J. Shackelford, F. Douzet, & C. Ankersen (Eds.), Cyber peace charting a path toward a sustainable, stable, and secure cyberspace. Cambridge University Press.
- Steinhardt, H. C. (2021). Defending stability under threat: Sensitive periods and the repression of protest in urban China. Journal of Contemporary China, 30(130), 526–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1852741
- Sullivan, C. M. (2016). Undermining resistance. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(7), 1163–1190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714567951
- Sullivan, C. M. (2016). Political repression and the destruction of dissident organizations. World Politics, 68(4), 645–676. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887116000125
- Svolik, M. W. (2009). Power sharing and leadership dynamics in authoritarian regimes. American Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 477–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00382.x
- Svolik, M. W. (2012a). The politics of authoritarian rule. Cambridge University Press.
- Svolik, M. W. (2012b). The politics of authoritarian rule. Cambridge University Press.
- Thornton, P. M. (2007). Virtue, violence, and state-making in modern China. Harvard University Asia Center.
- Truex, R. (2019). Focal points, dissident calendars, and preemptive repression. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63(4), 1032–1052. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002718770520
- Tullock, G. (1987). Autocracy. Kluwer Academic.
- Waldner, D. (2012). Process tracing and causal mechanisms. In H. Kincaid (Ed.), Handbook of the philosophy of social science. Oxford University Press.
- Wang, Y., & Minzer, C. (2015). The rise of the Chinese security state. The China Quarterly, 222, 339–359. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741015000430
- Weighill, R., & Gaub, F. (2018). The Cauldron: NATO’s Campaign in Libya. Oxford University Press.
- Xu, X. (2021). To repress or to co-opt? Authoritarian control in the age of digital surveillance. American Journal of Political Science, 65(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12514
- Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE.
- Zeng, J. (2016). China’s date with big data: Will it strengthen or threaten authoritarian rule? International Affairs, 92(6), 1443–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12750
- Zeng, J. (2020). Artificial intelligence and China’s authoritarian governance. International Affairs, 96(6), 1441–1459. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaa172
- Zenz, A., & Leibold, J. (2017). Chen Quanguo: The strongman behind Beijing’s Securitization Strategy in Tibet and Xinjiang. The Jamestown Foundation, September 21, https://jamestown.org/program/chen-quanguo-the-strongman-behind-beijings-securitization-strategy-in-tibet-and-xinjiang/
- Zhao, T., & Leibold, J. (2020). Ethnic governance under Xi Jinping: The centrality of the united front work department & its implications. Journal of Contemporary China, 29(124), 487–502. doi:10.1080/10670564.2019.1677359