Ironies of Subordination: Ambivalences of Gender in Religious AIDS Interventions in South AfricaFootnote

This article is based on a presentation given at the conference “Mixing Morals and Money: Gender and Faith-based Development” at the Department of International Development, Oxford University, 21–22 September 2007. For stimulating and critical discussions of earlier versions of this text I would like to thank Deborah Fahy Bryceson (Glasgow), Maria Jaschok (Oxford) as well as two anonymous reviewers. The field research period in South Africa as well my entire PhD project from which this article emerges were generously funded by Evangelisches Studienwerk Villigst, Germany.

References

• Agadjanian , V. 2005 . Gender, religious involvement, and HIV/AIDS prevention in Mozambique . Social Science & Medicine , 61 : 1529 – 1539 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bähre , E. 2002 . Witchcraft and the exchange of sex, blood, and money among Africans in Cape Town, South Africa . Journal of Religion in Africa , 32 ( 3 ) : 300 – 334 .
   Google Scholar
• Beckford , J. 1990 . The sociology of religion and social problems . Sociological Analysis , 51 ( 1 ) : 1 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Besteman , C. 2008 . Transforming Cape Town , Berkeley, Los Angeles and London : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bourdieu , P. 2001 . Masculine Domination , Stanford : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brusco , E. 1995 . The Reformation of Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colombia , Austin : Texas University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Burchardt , M. 2007a . Speaking to the converted? Religion and the politics of gender in South African AIDS discourse . Comparativ. Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und Vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung , 17 ( 5/6 ) : 95 – 114 .
   Google Scholar
• Burchardt, M. (2007b) Managing Risks through Solidarity? HIV/AIDS and the Organization of Support in South Africa, SCARR Working Paper No. 19, ESRC Priority Network Social Contexts and Responses to Risk, Canterbury, available at: http://www.kent.ac.uk/scarr/publications/Burchardt.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Burchardt , M. 2009 . “ Subjects of counselling: religion, HIV/AIDS and the management of everyday life in South Africa ” . In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa , Edited by: Becker , F. and Geissler , P. W. 333 – 358 . Leiden : Brill .
   Google Scholar
• Burchardt , M. 2010 . “Life in brackets”: biographical uncertainties of HIV-positive women in South Africa . Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research , 11 ( 1 ) Art. 3, available at: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs100135
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , C. 2001 . “Going underground and going after women”: masculinity and HIV transmission amongst black workers on the gold mines ” . In Changing Men in Southern Africa , Edited by: Morrell , R. 275 – 286 . Durban : University of KwaZulu Natal Press .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , C. 2003 . “Letting them Die”. Why HIV/AIDS Prevention Programmes Fail , Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Delius , P. and Glaser , C. 2002 . Sexual socialisation in South Africa: a historical perspective . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 27 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• Dilger , H. 2005 . Leben mit AIDS. Krankheit, Tod und soziale Beziehungen in Afrika , Frankfurt/M. and New York : Campus .
   Google Scholar
• Dilger , H. 2007 . Healing the wounds of modernity: salvation, community and care in a neo-Pentecostal Church in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania . Journal of Religion in Africa , 37 ( 1 ) : 59 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Douglas , M. 1992 . Risk and Blame. Essays in Cultural Theory , London and New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Ehrenreich , B. 1983 . The Hearts of Men. American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment , Garden City and New York : Anchor Press/Doubleday .
   Google Scholar
• Friedman , S. and Mottiar , S. 2006 . “ Seeking the high ground: the treatment action campaign and the politics of morality ” . In Voices of Protest. Social Movements in Post-Apartheid South Africa , Edited by: Ballard , R. , Habib , A. and Vallodia , I. 23 – 44 . Durban : University of KwaZulu Natal Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gaitskell , D. 2000 . Hot meetings and hard kraals: African biblewomen in Transvaal Methodism, 1924–1960 . Journal of Religion in Africa , 30 ( 3 ) : 277 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Garner , R. C. 2000a . Safe sects? Dynamic religion and AIDS in South Africa . Journal of Modern African Studies , 38 ( 1 ) : 41 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garner , R. C. 2000b . Religion as a source of social change in the new South Africa . Journal of Religion in Africa , 30 ( 3 ) : 310 – 343 .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , L. and Walker , L. 2002 . Treading the path of least resistance: HIV/AIDS and social inequalities—a South African case study . Social Science and Medicine , 54 : 1093 – 1110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill , L. 1990 . “Like a veil to cover them”: women and the Pentecostal movement in La Paz . American Ethnologist , 17 ( 4 ) : 708 – 721 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallman , K. 2005 . Gendered socioeconomic conditions and HIV risk behaviour among young people in South Africa . African Journal for AIDS Research , 4 ( 1 ) : 37 – 50 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haram , L. 1996 . “ The gendered epidemic: sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS among the Meru people of Northern Tanzania ” . In Reproductive Health Research in Developing Countries, Proceeding from the HEBUT-Programme , Edited by: Bergstrom , S. and Holmbee-Otlesen , G. 39 – 54 . Oslo : Centre for Development and Environment, University of Oslo . SUM Report No. 4
   Google Scholar
• Harrison , A. 2001 . Understanding young women's risk for HIV/AIDS: adolescent sexuality and vulnerability in rural KwaZulu/Natal . Society in Transition , 32 ( 1 ) : 69 – 78 .
   Google Scholar
• Hervieu-Léger , D. 2004 . Pilger und Konvertiten. Religion in Bewegung , Würzburg : Ergon .
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild , A. 2000 . “ Global care chains and emotional surplus value ” . In On the Edge: Globalization and the New Millennium , Edited by: Giddens , A. and Hutton , W. 130 – 146 . London : Jonathan Cape .
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild , A. and Ehrenreich , B. , eds. 2003 . Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy , New York : Metropolitan Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hunter , M. 2002 . The materiality of everyday sex: thinking beyond prostitution . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 99 – 120 .
   Google Scholar
• Hunter , M. 2004 . Masculinities, multiple sexual partners and AIDS: the making and un-making of Isoka in KwaZulu Natal . Transformation , 54 : 123 – 154 .
   Google Scholar
• Iliffe , J. 2007 . The African AIDS Epidemic. A History , Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Ingstad , B. 1990 . The cultural construction of AIDS and its consequences for prevention in Botswana . Medical Anthropology Quarterly , 4 ( 1 ) : 28 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James , D. 2002 . “To take the information down to the people”: life skills and HIV/AIDS peer educators in the Durban area . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 169 – 189 .
   Google Scholar
• Kohlmorgen , L. 2004 . Global health governance und AIDS—Elemente eines globalen Integrationsmodus? . Peripherie. Zeitschrift für Politik und Ökonomie in der Dritten Welt , 24 ( 93/94 ) : 139 – 165 .
   Google Scholar
• Leclerc-Madlala , S. 2001a . Virginity testing. Managing sexuality in a maturing HIV/AIDS epidemic . Medical Anthropology Quarterly , 15 ( 4 ) : 533 – 552 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leclerc-Madlala , S. 2001b . Demonising women in the era of AIDS: on the relationships of cultural constructions of both HIV/AIDS and femininity . Society in Transition , 32 ( 1 ) : 38 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Levine , S. and Ross , F. 2002 . Perceptions of and attitudes to HIV/AIDS among young adults in Cape Town . Social Dynamics , 28 ( 1 ) : 80 – 108 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loret de Mola , P. F. 1999 . “ Converted women redefining their family roles in Mexico ” . In Family, Religion and Social Change in Diverse Societies , Edited by: Houseknecht , S. K. and Pankhurst , J. G. 362 – 383 . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marks , S. 2002 . An epidemic waiting to happen? The spread of HIV/AIDS in South Africa in social and historical perspective . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 13 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen , V. -K. 2005 . “ Antiretroviral globalism, biopolitics, and therapeutic citizenship ” . In Global Assemblages: Technology, Politics, and Ethics as Anthropological Problems , Edited by: Ong , A. and Collier , S. J. 124 – 144 . Malden : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Niehaus , I. 2009 . “ Leprosy of a deadlier kind: Christian conceptions of AIDS in the South African Lowveld ” . In Aids and Religious Practice in Africa , Edited by: Becker , F. and Geissler , P. W. 309 – 332 . Leiden : Brill .
   Google Scholar
• Obbo , C. 1993 . HIV transmission: men are the solution . Population and Environment , 14 ( 3 ) : 211 – 243 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton , C. 2002 . Globalizing AIDS , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pfeiffer , J. 2004 . Condom marketing, Pentecostalism, and structural adjustment in Mozambique . Medical Anthropology Quarterly , 18 ( 1 ) : 77 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pigg , S. L. 2005 . “ Globalizing the facts of life ” . In Sex in Development. Science, Sexuality, and Morality in Global Perspective , Edited by: Adams , V. and Pigg , S. L. 39 – 65 . Durham and London : Duke University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Posel , D. 2004 . Die Kontroverse um HIV/Aids in Südafrika. Zur Politisierung von Sexualität nach der Apartheid . Peripherie. Zeitschrift für Politik und Ökonomie in der Dritten Welt , 24 ( 93/94 ) : 8 – 41 .
   Google Scholar
• Preston-Whyte , E. 1999 . “ Reproductive health and the condom dilemma: identifying situational barriers to HIV prevention in South Africa ” . In Resistances to Behavioural Change to Reduce HIV/AIDS Infection , Edited by: Caldwell , J. 139 – 155 . Canberra : Health Transition Centre .
   Google Scholar
• Preston-Whyte , E. , Varga , C. , Osthuizen , H. , Roberts , R. and Blose , F. 2000 . “ Survival sex in an African city ” . In Framing the Sexual Subject. The Politics of Gender, Sexuality and Power , Edited by: Parker , R. , Barbosa , R. M. and Aggleton , P. 165 – 190 . Berkeley : Berkeley University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Robins, S. (2005) Rights Passages from “Near Death” to “New Life”. AIDS Activism and Treatment Testimonies in South Africa, IDS Working Paper 251, Brighton.
   Google Scholar
• Robins , S. 2006 . Sexual rights and sexual cultures: reflections on “the Zuma affair” and “new masculinities” in the new South Africa . Horizontes Antropológicos , 12 ( 26 ) : 149 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• Rooth, E. (2005) An investigation of the status and practice of life orientation in South African schools in two provinces, unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Sadgrove , J. 2007 . “Keeping up appearances”: sex and religion amongst university students in Uganda . Journal of Religion in Africa , 37 ( 1 ) : 116 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Schoepf , B. G. 2001 . International AIDS research in anthropology: taking a critical perspective on the crisis . Annual Review of Anthropology , 30 : 335 – 361 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scorgie , F. 2002 . Virginity testing and the politics of sexual responsibility. Implications for AIDS interventions . African Studies , 61 ( 1 ) : 55 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Scott , J. C. 1985 . Weapons of the Weak. Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance , New Haven and London : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sobo , E. 1997 . Self-disclosure and self-construction among HIV positive people: the rhetorical use of stereotypes and sex . Anthropology and Medicine , 4 : 67 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Soothill , J. E. 2007 . Gender, Social Change and Spiritual Power. Charismatic Christianity in Ghana , Leiden and Boston : Brill .
   Google Scholar
• Soskolne, T. (2003) Moving Beyond the Margins: A Narrative Analysis of the Life Stories of Women Living with HIV/AIDS in Khayelitsha, CSSR Working Paper No. 23, Centre for Social Science Research, Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Stillwaggon , E. 2003 . Racial metaphors: interpreting sex and AIDS in Africa . Development and Change , 34 ( 5 ) : 809 – 832 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varga , C. A. 1997 . Sexual decision-making and negotiation in the midst of AIDS: youth in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa . Health Transition Review , : 45 – 67 . Supplement 3–7
   Google Scholar
• Varga , C. A. 1999 . “ South African young people's sexual dynamics: implications for behavioural responses to HIV/AIDS ” . In Resistances to Behavioural Change to Reduce HIV/AIDS Infection , Edited by: Caldwell , J. 13 – 34 . Canberra : Health Transition Centre .
   Google Scholar
• Waal , A. de . 2003 . “ A disaster with no name: the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the limits of governance ” . In Learning from HIV and AIDS. Biosocial Society Symposium Series , Edited by: Ellison , G. , Parker , M. and Campbell , C. 238 – 268 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wood , C. and Jewkes , R. 2005 . “Dangerous love”. Reflections on violence among Xhosa township youth ” . In Changing Men in Southern Africa , Edited by: Morell , R. 317 – 336 . Durban : University of KwaZulu Natal Press .
   Google Scholar