Online hate in the Philippines: the role of narratives and networks

References

• Abdi, Hervé, and Lynne J. Williams. 2010. “Principal Component Analysis.” WIRES Computational Statistics 2 (4): 433–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.101.
   Google Scholar
• Alkiviadou, Natalie. 2019. “Hate Speech on Social Media Networks: Towards a Regulatory Framework?” Information & Communications Technology Law 28 (1): 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2018.1494417.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banks, James. 2010. “Regulating Hate Speech Online.” International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 24 (3): 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600869.2010.522323.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, Paul J., Bryan Byers, and Arthur Jipson. 2000. “The Contentious American Debate: The First Amendment and Internet-Based Hate Speech.” International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 14 (1): 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600860054872.
   Google Scholar
• Beskow, David M., and Kathleen M. Carley. 2018. “Bot Conversations Are Different: Leveraging Network Metrics for Bot Detection in Twitter.” In 2018 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), 825–832. IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Beskow, David M., and Kathleen M. Carley. 2019. “Social Cybersecurity: An Emerging National Security Requirement.” Military Review 99 (2): 117.
   Google Scholar
• Curato, Nicole, and Jonathan Corpus Ong. 2018. “Who Laughs at a Rape Joke? Illiberal Responsiveness in Rodrigo Duterte’s Philippines.” In Ethical Responsiveness and the Politics of Difference, edited by Tanja Dreher, and Anshuman A. Mondal, 117–132. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93958-2_7.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, Thomas, Dana Warmsley, Michael Macy, and Ingmar Weber. 2017. “Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Language.” In Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media.
   Google Scholar
• Devakumar, Delan, Geordan Shannon, Sunil S. Bhopal, and Ibrahim Abubakar. 2020. “Racism and Discrimination in COVID-19 Responses.” The Lancet 395 (10231): 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doorn, Janne van. 2018. “Anger, Feelings of Revenge, and Hate.” Emotion Review 10 (4): 321–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073918783260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evangelopoulos, Nicholas, Xiaoni Zhang, and Victor R Prybutok. 2012. “Latent Semantic Analysis: Five Methodological Recommendations.” European Journal of Information Systems 21 (1): 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejis.2010.61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, Agneta, Eran Halperin, Daphna Canetti, and Alba Jasini. 2018. “Why We Hate.” Emotion Review 10 (4): 309–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073917751229.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganesh, Bharath, and Jonathan Bright. 2020. “Countering Extremists on Social Media: Challenges for Strategic Communication and Content Moderation.” Policy & Internet 12 (1): 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, Gilbert C., Marguerite J. Ro, and Anne W. Rimoin. 2020. “Seven Reasons to Care About Racism and COVID-19 and Seven Things to Do to Stop It.” American Journal of Public Health 110 (7): 954–955. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305712.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelber, Katharine, and Luke McNamara. 2016. “Evidencing the Harms of Hate Speech.” Social Identities 22 (3): 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2015.1128810.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gover, Angela R., Shannon B. Harper, and Lynn Langton. 2020. “Anti-Asian Hate Crime During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploring the Reproduction of Inequality.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 45 (4): 647–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, Bing, Caleb Ziems, Sandeep Soni, Naren Ramakrishnan, Diyi Yang, and Srijan Kumar. 2021. “Racism Is a Virus: Anti-Asian Hate and Counterspeech in Social Media During the COVID-19 Crisis.” In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining, 90–94. ASONAM ‘21. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3487351.3488324.
   Google Scholar
• Hswen, Yulin, Xiang Xu, Anna Hing, Jared B. Hawkins, John S. Brownstein, and Gilbert C. Gee. 2021. “Association of “#covid19” Versus “#Chinesevirus” With Anti-Asian Sentiments on Twitter: March 9–23, 2020.” American Journal of Public Health 111 (5): 956–964. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iginio, Gagliardone, Gal Danit, Alves Thiago, and Martinez Gabriela. 2015. Countering Online Hate Speech. UNESCO Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, N. F., R. Leahy, N. Johnson Restrepo, N. Velasquez, M. Zheng, P. Manrique, P. Devkota, and S. Wuchty. 2019. “Hidden Resilience and Adaptive Dynamics of the Global Online Hate Ecology.” Nature 573 (7773): 261–265. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1494-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingston, John, and Kate Stalker. 2006. “Forensic Stylistics in an Online World.” International Review of Law, Computers & Technology 20 (1-2): 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600860600580785.
   Google Scholar
• Krackhardt, David, and Robert N. Stern. 1988. “Informal Networks and Organizational Crises: An Experimental Simulation.” Social Psychology Quarterly 51 (2): 123–140. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786835.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacAvaney, Sean, Hao-Ren Yao, Eugene Yang, Katina Russell, Nazli Goharian, and Ophir Frieder. 2019. “Hate Speech Detection: Challenges and Solutions.” PLoS One 14 (8): e0221152. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matamoros-Fernández, Ariadna, and Johan Farkas. 2021. “Racism, Hate Speech, and Social Media: A Systematic Review and Critique.” Television & New Media 22 (2): 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong, Jonathan, and Jason Vincent Cabañes. 2018. “Architects of Networked Disinformation: Behind the Scenes of Troll Accounts and Fake News Production in the Philippines.” In Architects of Networked Disinformation: Behind the Scenes of Troll Accounts and Fake News Production in the Philippines. https://doi.org/10.7275/2cq4-5396.
   Google Scholar
• Opotow, Susan, and Sara I. McClelland. 2007. “The Intensification of Hating: A Theory.” Social Justice Research 20 (1): 68–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0033-0.
   Google Scholar
• Pennebaker, James W., Matthias R. Mehl, and Kate G. Niederhoffer. 2003. “Psychological Aspects of Natural Language Use: Our Words, Our Selves.” Annual Review of Psychology 54 (1): 547–577. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohjonen, Matti, and Sahana Udupa. 2017. “Extreme Speech Online: An Anthropological Critique of Hate Speech Debates.” International Journal of Communication 11 (0): 19.
   Google Scholar
• Poletto, Fabio, Valerio Basile, Manuela Sanguinetti, Cristina Bosco, and Viviana Patti. 2021. “Resources and Benchmark Corpora for Hate Speech Detection: A Systematic Review.” Language Resources and Evaluation 55 (2): 477–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-020-09502-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddi, Madhavi, Rachel Kuo, and Daniel Kreiss. 2021. “Identity Propaganda: Racial Narratives and Disinformation.” New Media & Society, 14614448211029292. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211029293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg, Robert J. 2003. “A Duplex Theory of Hate: Development and Application to Terrorism, Massacres, and Genocide.” Review of General Psychology 7 (3): 299–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.7.3.299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by William G. Austin, and Stephen Worchel, 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Traag, Vincent A., Ludo Waltman, and Nees Jan van Eck. 2019. “Occurrence of the Potent Mutagens 2- Nitrobenzanthrone and 3-Nitrobenzanthrone in Fine Airborne Particles.” Scientific Reports 9 (1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-37186-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ullmann, Stefanie, and Marcus Tomalin. 2020. “Quarantining Online Hate Speech: Technical and Ethical Perspectives.” Ethics and Information Technology 22 (1): 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-019-09516-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uyheng, Joshua, and Kathleen M. Carley. 2019. “Characterizing Bot Networks on Twitter: An Empirical Analysis of Contentious Issues in the Asia-Pacific.” In International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction and Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation, 153–162. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Uyheng, Joshua, and Kathleen M. Carley. 2020. “Bots and Online Hate During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Case Studies in the United States and the Philippines.” Journal of Computational Social Science 3 (2): 445–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42001-020-00087-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Uyheng, Joshua, and Kathleen M. Carley. 2021. “An Identity-Based Framework for Generalizable Hate Speech Detection.” In Social, Cultural, and Behavioral Modeling, edited by Robert Thomson, Muhammad Nihal Hussain, Christopher Dancy, and Aryn Pyke, 121–130. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80387-2_12.
   Google Scholar
• Uyheng, Joshua, Thomas Magelinski, Ramon Villa-Cox, Christine Sowa, and Kathleen M. Carley. 2019. “Interoperable Pipelines for Social Cyber-Security: Assessing Twitter Information Operations During NATO Trident Juncture 2018.” Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory, 1–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zannettou, Savvas, Barry Bradlyn, Emiliano De Cristofaro, Haewoon Kwak, Michael Sirivianos, Gianluca Stringini, and Jeremy Blackburn. 2018. “What Is Gab: A Bastion of Free Speech or an Alt-Right Echo Chamber.” In Companion Proceedings of the Web Conference 2018, 1007–1014. WWW ‘18. Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE: International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee.
   Google Scholar